Henry's Home: May 2017

Wednesday, May 31, 2017

Cell Cycle

Cell Cycle Definition

The cell cycle is a cycle of stages that cells pass through to allow them to divide and produce new cells. It is sometimes referred to as the “cell division cycle” for that reason.

New cells are born through the division of their “parent” cell, producing two “daughter” cells from one single “parent” cell.

Daughter cells start life small, containing only half of the parent cell’s cytoplasm and only one copy of the DNA that is the cell’s “blueprint” or “source code” for survival. In order to divide and produce “daughter cells” of their own, the newborn cells must grow and produce more copies of vital cellular machinery – including their DNA.

The two main parts of the cell cycle are mitosis and interphase.

Mitosis is the phase of cell division, during which a “parent cell” divides to create two “daughter cells.”

The longest part of the cell cycle is called “interphase” – the phase of growth and DNA replication between mitotic cell divisions.

Both mitosis and interphase are divided into smaller sub-phases which need to be executed in order for cell division, growth, and development to proceed smoothly. Here we will focus on interphase, as the phases of mitosis have been covered in our “Mitosis” article.

Interphase consists of at least three distinct stages during which the cell grows, produces new organelles, replicates its DNA, and finally divides.

Only after the cell has grown by absorbing nutrients, and copied its DNA and other essential cellular machinery, can this “daughter cell” divide, becoming “parent” to two “daughter cells” of its own.

The graphic below shows a visual representation of the cell cycle. The small section labeled “M” represents mitosis, while interphase is shown subdivided into its major components: the G₁, S, and G₂ phases.

This cell cycle is used by all eukaryotic cells to produce new cells. Prokaryotic cells such as bacteria use a process called “binary fission.”

For some unicellular eukaryotes, the cell cycle is the same as the reproductive cycle. Their “daughter cells” are independent organisms that will go on to reproduce themselves through mitosis.

In other organisms, the cell cycle is used for growth and development of a single organism, while other methods are used to reproduce the organism.

Animals and some plants, for example, create new offspring through a process of sexual reproduction which involves the creation and combination of special sex cells.

But animals and plants still use the cell cycle to produce new cells within their tissues. This allows these multicellular organisms grow and heal throughout their lifespans.

Function of Cell Cycle

Because cells reproduce by dividing, new “daughter” cells are smaller than their parent cells, and may inherit the bare minimum of cellular machinery they need to survive.

Before these daughter cells can divide to produce still more cells, they need to grow and reproduce their cellular machinery.

The importance of the cell cycle can be understood by doing simple math about cell division. If cells did not grow in between divisions, each generation of “daughter” cells would be only half the size of the parent generation. This would become unsustainable pretty quickly!

In order to accomplish this growth and prepare for cell division, cells divide their metabolic activities into distinct phases of Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2 between cell divisions.

The complete cell division cycle will be discussed below.

Phases of Cell Cycle

Mitosis

Let’s start this cell cycle with “birth.”

During mitosis, the “parent” cell goes through a complex series of steps to ensure that each “daughter” cell will get the materials it needs to survive, including a copy of each chromosome. Once the materials are properly sorted, the “parent” cell divides down the middle, pinching its membrane in two.

You can read more about the detailed steps of mitosis and how a parent cell makes sure its daughter cells will inherit what they need to survive in our article on Mitosis (https://biologydictionary.net/mitosis/).

Each of the new “daughters” are now independently living cells. But they’re small, and have only one copy of their genetic material.

This means they can’t divide to produce their own “daughters” right away. First, they must pass through “interphase” – the phase between divisions, which consists of three distinct phases.

G₁ Phase

In G₁ phase, the newly formed daughter cell grows. The “G” is most often said to stand for “gap,” since these phases appear to an outside observer with a light microscope to be relatively inactive “gaps” in the cell’s activity.

However given what we know today, it might be more accurate to say the “G” stands for “growth” – for the “G” phases are flurries of protein and organelle production as well as literal increase in the size of the cell.

During the first “growth” or “gap” phase, the cell produces many essential materials such as proteins and ribosomes. Cells that rely on specialized organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria make a lot more of those organelles during G₁ as well. The cell’s size may increase as it assimilates more material from its environment into its machinery for life.

This allows the cell to increase its energy production and overall metabolism, preparing it for…

S Phase

During S phase, the cell replicates its DNA. The “S” stands for “synthesis” – referring to the synthesis of new chromosomes from raw materials.

This is a very energy-intensive operation, since many nucleotides need to by synthesized. Many eukaryotic cells have dozens of chromosomes – huge masses of DNA – that must be copied.

Production of other substances and organelles is slowed greatly during this time as the cell focuses on replicating its entire genome.

When the S phase is completed, the cell will have two complete sets of its genetic material. This is crucial for cell division, as it ensures that both daughter cells can receive a copy of the “blueprint” they need to survive and reproduce.

However, replicating its DNA can leave the cell a little bit depleted. That’s why it has to go through…

G₂ Phase

Just like the first “gap” phase of the cell cycle, the G₂ phase is characterized by lots of protein production.

During G₂, many cells also check to make sure that both copies of their DNA are correct and intact. If a cell’s DNA is found to be damaged, it may fail its “G₂/M checkpoint” – so named because the this “checkpoint” happens at the end of the G₂ phase, right between G₂ and “M phase” or “Mitosis.”

This “G₂/M checkpoint” is a very important safety measure for multicellular organisms like animals. Cancers, which can result in the death of the entire organism, can occur when cells with damaged DNA reproduce. By checking to see if a cells’ DNA has been damaged immediately before replication, animals and some other organisms reduce the risk of cancer.

Interestingly, some organisms can skip G₂ altogether and go straight into mitosis after DNA is synthesized during S phase. Most organisms, however, find it safer to use G₂ and its associated checkpoint!

If the G₂/M checkpoint is passed, the cell cycle begins again. The cell divides through mitosis, and new daughter cells begin the cycle that will take them through G₁, S, and G₂ phases to produce new daughter cells of their own.

Unless of course they’re meant for…

An Alternative Path: G₀ Phase

After being born through mitosis, some cells are not meant to divide themselves to produce daughter cells.

Neurons, for example – animal nerve cells – do not divide. Their “parent cells” are stem cells, and the “daughter” neuron cells are programmed not to go through the cell cycle themselves because uncontrolled neuron growth and cell division could be very dangerous for the organism.

So instead of entering G₁ phase after being “born,” neurons enter a phase scientists call “G₀ phase.” This is a metabolic state meant only to maintain the daughter cell, not prepare for cell division.

Neurons and other non-dividing cell types may spend their whole lives in G₀ phase, performing their function for the overall organism without ever dividing or reproducing themselves.

Cell Cycle Regulation

It’s very important for the survival of cells and organisms that the cell cycle be regulated.

Organisms need to be able to stop cell division when the cell in question is damaged, or when there isn’t enough food to support new growth; they must also be able to start up cell division when growth or wound healing are needed.

To accomplish this, cells use a variety of chemical “signal cascades” where multiple links in a chain create complex effects based on simple signals.

In these regulatory cascades, a single protein may change the function of many other proteins, bringing about widespread changes to the functioning or even structure of the cell.

This allows these proteins – such as cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases – to act as “stop points.” If the cyclins or cyclin-dependent kinases don’t give the go-ahead, the cell cannot progress to subsequent stages of the cell cycle.

Some examples of cell cycle regulation are given below.

Cell Cycle Examples

Here we’ll discuss common examples of how cells regulate their cell cycles, using a complex cascade of signal molecules, protein-activating enzymes, and signal-destroying molecules.

p53

p53 is a protein that is well-known to scientists for its role in stopping cells with severe DNA damage from reproducing.

When DNA is damaged, p53 works with cyclin-dependent protein kinases and other proteins to initiate repair and protection functions – and can also stop the cell from entering mitosis, ensuring that cells with DNA damage do not reproduce.

Cyclins

Cyclins are a group of proteins that are produced at different points in the cell cycle. There are cyclins unique to most phases of the cell cycle – G₁ cyclins, G₁ /S cyclins that regulate the transition from G₁ into S, S cyclins, and M cyclins that regulate the progress through the stages of mitosis.

Most cyclins are found in the cell at very low concentrations during other phases of the cell cycle, but then spike suddenly when they’re needed to give the go-ahead to the next stage of the cell cycle. Certain types of DNA damage may prevent these cyclins from appearing to move the cell cycle forward, or may prevent them from activating their cyclin-dependent protein kinases.

A few others, such as G₁ cyclins, remain high as a constant “go ahead” signal from G₁ until mitosis.

Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinases

The cell’s cyclins ultimately do their jobs by interacting with Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinases – that is, kinases that activate certain enzymes and proteins when they bind to a cyclin. This allows cyclins to function as the “go” signal for many changes in cellular activity that happens throughout the cell cycle.

Protein kinases are a special set of enzymes that “activate” other enzymes and proteins by affixing phosphate groups to them. When an enzyme or other protein is “activated” by a kinase, its behavior changes until it returns to its inactivated form.

The system by which one protein kinase can change the activities of many other proteins allows simple signals, such as cyclins, to produce complex changes to cellular activity. Signal-dependent protein kinases are used to coordinate many complex cellular activities.

Maturation-Promoting Factor

One example of a protein kinase at work is the Maturation-Promoting Factor, or MPF. MPF is a protein kinase that is activated by an M cyclin, meaning that it is activated during mitosis.

When MPF is activated, it in turn activates several different proteins in the nuclear envelop of its host cell. The changes to these proteins result in the disintegration of the nuclear envelope.

This is something that would be very dangerous at other points in the cell cycle, but which is necessary during mitosis so that the chromosomes can be sorted to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of each chromosome.

If M cyclins do not appear, MPF does not activate, and mitosis cannot go forward. This is a good example of how cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases work together to coordinate – or stop – the cell cycle.

Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome

Ingeniously, the protein kinase MPF doesn’t just ensure that the nuclear envelope breaks down during mitosis – it also ensures that MPF levels will fall after the nuclear envelope is broken down. It does this by activating the Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome, or “APC/C” for short.

As its name suggests, the APC/C promotes passage into Anaphase – and one of the ways it does that is by breaking down MPF, a messenger from a previous phase. So MPF actually activates the very proteins that destroy it.

The destruction of MPF by the APC/C ensures that the actions MPF promotes – such as the disintegration of the nuclear envelope – do not happen again until the daughter cell makes more MPF after passing through G₁ phase, S phase, and G₂ phase.

By activating the APC/C, MPF regulates itself!

Quiz

1. Which of the following is NOT a reason why interphase is necessary?
A. Daughter cells begin life with only one copy of their DNA.
B. Daughter cells begin life small, without sufficient cellular machinery to pass on to daughter cells.
C. If cells performed mitosis repeatedly without going through interphase, each generation of daughter cells would be progressively smaller.
D. All of the above.

Answer to Question #1

2. Which of the following organism would you NOT expect to use the cell cycle described here?
A. A daisy
B. A kitten
C. An archaebacteria
D. None of the above

Answer to Question #2

3. Which of the following is true of the G2 phase?
A. It is when the cell’s DNA is copied.
B. It is the first phase of the cell cycle after mitosis.
C. It contains the important G₂/M checkpoint which checks the cell for DNA damage before allowing it to reproduce.
D. None of the above.

Answer to Question #3

References

Cooper, G. M. (1997). The cell: a molecular approach. Washington, DC: ASM Press.

Taylor, W. R., & Stark, G. R. (2001). Regulation of the G2/M transition by p53. Oncogene, 20(15), 1803-1815. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1204252

Galderisi, U., Jori, F. P., & Giordano, A. (2003). Cell cycle regulation and neural differentiation. Oncogene, 22(33), 5208-5219. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1206558

Cell Cycle

Spontaneous Generation

Spontaneous Generation Definition

Spontaneous generation is an incorrect and obsolete hypothesis about the possibility of life forms being able to emerge from non-living things.

Spontaneous Generation Theory

The theory of spontaneous generation, first comprehensively posited by Aristotle in his book ”On the Generation of Animals” around 350 B.C., aims to explain the seemingly sudden emergence of organisms such as rats, flies and maggots within rotting meat and other decomposable items. The theory suggests that organisms do not descend from other organisms or from a parent, and only require that certain conditions in their environment be fulfilled in order for creation to occur.

Aristotle theorized that non-living matter contained a “vital heat” called pneuma—the concept of a “breath of life” and translated later as “anima” meaning “soul” in Latin—and a combination of the four elements believed to make up all life: earth, air, fire and water.

He suggested that animals and plants could arise from earth and liquid, because there was “vital heat” within all air, there is air in water, and there is water in earth, meaning there is “vital heat” or “soul” within everything.

His explanation of the spontaneous generation was as follows:

“… living things form quickly whenever this air and vital heat are enclosed in anything. When they are so enclosed, the corporeal liquids being heated, there arises as it were a frothy bubble. Whether what is forming is to be more or less honorable in kind depends on the embracing of the psychical principle; this again depends on the medium in which the generation takes place and the material which is included.”

Examples of Spontaneous Generation

Bougonia

One of the first accounts relating to spontaneous generation was by the Roman poet Virgil. He described, as a recipe, the process in which one could make synthetic bees.

The readers were instructed to beat a bovine calf to death, block up its mouth and nose, before leaving the carcass on a bed of cinnamon sticks and thyme.

He noted that creatures would magically appear “first voide of limbs, but soon awhir with wings”—presumably this is referring to maggots, which subsequently develop in to bees.

Virgil called the process described in the recipe “Bougonia”.

Spontaneous Generation of Mice

The “recipe” for making a mouse requires that sweaty underwear should be placed over an open-mouth jar containing husks of wheat inside for around 21 days.

A simple explanation: mice like to eat wheat and, with ease of entering a jar and finding a dark and safe space, would most likely to find themselves at home and have a few offspring in the new nest.

Scorpions

The European chemist Jean Baptiste van Helmont stated that scorpions could be manufactured by carving an indentation in to a brick, filling the hole with basil and covering the arrangement with another brick.

After leaving it in the sun for a couple of days, one could return to the brick formation and would be amazed to find that “fumes from the basil, acting as a leavening agent, will have transformed the vegetable matter into veritable scorpions”!

Other Examples

Wet soil after a flood was believed to create amphibians such as frogs and toads.

Garbage in the streets was thought to create rats.

Salamanders were thought to be borne within fire (they often hide inside logs and were probably trying to escape the blaze!).

Oyster shells were believed to form as the earth solidified around them and the “vital heat” grew the creature within.

Crocodiles in Egypt were thought to have emerged from the mud with the sunshine as a catalyst.

The Disproving of Spontaneous Generation Theory

Francesco Redi, 1626-1697

Francesco Redi was an Italian physician and the first scientist to suspect that the theory of spontaneous generation may be flawed, so he set up a simple experiment. He placed fresh meat into two different jars, one with a muslin cloth over the top, and the other left open. A few days later, the open jar contained maggots, while the covered container did not. He saw this as proof that maggots had to come from fly eggs and could not spontaneously generate.

John Needham, 1731-1781

Over 100 years later, John Needham, an English naturalist and an avid supporter of spontaneous generation theory, performed an experiment in which he boiled up a broth and poured it into a covered flask—at this time, people were aware that the process of boiling removed the microorganisms that they called “animacules”. After a short while, the broth was filled with microorganisms, a revelation to Needham who claimed these had arisen through spontaneous generation. His experiment was contested for the fact he did not heat the broth for long enough and his animacules were heat resistant.

Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1729-1799

Another Italian scientist, Lazzaro Spallanzani, performed a similar experiment to Needham and found that if the broth was heated after the flask was sealed rather than before, the organisms did not generate. He decided that Needham’s broths had been contaminated between the boiling pan and the flask.

Needham’s response claimed that air was necessary for spontaneous generation and that the “vital heat” in the air had been destroyed during Spallanzani’s experiment.

Louis Pasteur, 1822 – 1895

Finally in 1859, a French scientist named Louis Pasteur designed a series of flasks with the necks bent into an S shape. The necks were fashioned so that fresh air could reach the flasks, but were bent in such a way that any air-borne microbes would be trapped at the bottom of the curves.

He boiled the broth inside the flask and did not see any microbes in the broth for many months. When he eventually removed the top from the flask and left it off, he found the liquid to be teaming with microorganisms within a few days. Therefore, he had proved that the microbes from which life arises are present within the air and are not spontaneously generated!

The image shows a simple diagram of Pasteur’s experiment.

Quiz

1. What was wrong with John Needham’s experiment?
A. He contaminated his sample
B. His sample was too small
C. He did not leave his sample for enough time
D. He did not use the right type of broth

Answer to Question #1

2. Why did Louis Pasteur make an S shape neck for his flasks?
A. So that the air could escape
B. So that the microbes would be collected
C. To help the microbes reach the fluid
D. So it was easier to hold

Answer to Question #2

References

Boundless. “Pasteur and Spontaneous Generation.” Boundless Microbiology Boundless. Retrieved from www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless-microbiology-textbook/introduction-to-microbiology-1/introduction-to-microbiology-18/pasteur-and-spontaneous-generation-205-5188/

Laura Moss (2014) How to make a mouse: The bizarre ‘recipes’ borne of spontaneous generation. Mother Nature Network. Retrieved from: http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/research-innovations/stories/how-to-make-a-mouse-the-bizarre-recipes-borne-of-spontaneous

Matt Simon (2014) Fantastically Wrong: Why people once thought that mice grew out of wheat and sweaty shirts. WIRED. Retrieved from:https://www.wired.com/2014/06/fantastically-wrong-how-to-grow-a-mouse-out-of-wheat-and-sweaty-shirts/

Phillip Ball (2016) Man Made: A History of Synthetic Life. Distillations. Chemical Heritage Foundation. Retrieved from:https://www.chemheritage.org/distillations/magazine/man-made-a-history-of-synthetic-life

John S. Wilkins (2004) Spontaneous Generation and the Origin of Life. Talk Origins. Retrieved from:http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/abioprob/spontaneous-generation.html

Origin of Life: Spontaneous Generation (2017) Infoplease. Retrieved From: https://www.infoplease.com/science/biology/origin-life-spontaneous-generation

Mark Kusinitz. (2017) Spontaneous Generation. JRank. Retrieved from: http://science.jrank.org/pages/6408/Spontaneous-Generation.html

Spontaneous Generation

Sunday, May 28, 2017

Castor and Pollux

Fast Facts:

Pronunciation: Car-ster, Pol-luks

Origin: Mortals in Greek and Roman Mythology

Role: Friendship, sports and protecting the home

Parents: Pollux: Zeus and Leda. Castor: Tyndareus and Leda

Wives: Phoebe and Hilaeira

Symbols: A pair of snakes, dokana symbol

Who are Castor and Pollux?

Castor and Pollux, also called the Dioscuri, meaning youths of Zeus, were semi-divine twins and patrons of the Roman knights. They also protected humans in danger during war times and at sea. Castor and Pollux were closely linked to sports and horses. Castor was a brilliant horse tamer and Pollux, a skilled boxer. In reference to their father or stepfather, the twins were also known as the Tyndaridae.

Origin

The twins were supposedly born from an egg after Zeus, disguised as a swan seduced Leda. The one twin, Pollux, was immortal, but his brother Castor was mortal, since he had another father. Castor’s father was a human male named Tyndareus. Tyndareus had slept with Leda on the same night as Zeus. According to Pindar, an ancient Greek poet, the twins could swap their immortality when they switched between Hades and Mount Olympus. The twins had a cult following too, dating back to the mid-6th century BC.

Legends and Stories

The twins were excellent huntsmen and formed part of the party that killed the vicious monster, the Calydonian boar. The animal had been sent as punishment by the goddess Artemis, because the king had not honored her. The boar was, however, struck first by an arrow from a powerful woman, Atalanta, which caused a ruckus amongst the men. Many of the hunting party turned on each other over the spoils, ironically extending the goddess’ punishment of the people. The twins also took part in the Argonaut expedition. Pollux had to make use of his superior boxing skills in the adventure with Jason, to beat King Amycus of Bebryces, their prize boxer.

The Leucippides

The twins wanted to marry two women, Phoebe and Hilaeira, but both women were already promised in marriage to their cousins. Castor and Pollux nonetheless kidnapped the two women and took them to Sparta, where each bore their husband a son. This caused great strife in the family and resulted in the start of a feud. Their two cousins, Idas and Lynceus, later went to Sparta to visit their uncle. Helen was left in charge of the household, as their uncle was away. The twins saw the opportunity to exact revenge on their cousins, who had stolen their cattle, and left to go and steal Idas and Lynceus’ herd. The cousins left shortly after them, leaving Paris, prince of Troy, alone with Helen. Paris took advantage of everybody’s absence and kidnapped the exquisite Helen, thereby starting the Trojan War.

The cousins came across Castor and Pollux, attempting to free their cattle and a battle ensued. Idas killed Castor with his spear and Pollux killed Lynceus. As Idas was about to kill Pollux, Zeus sent a deadly thunderbolt which killed him and saved his son. Zeus gave Pollux the choice to save his brother, by giving away half his immortality and Pollux accepted. He then spent half his time in Hades and half on Mount Olympus, as his twin did conversely.

Helen’s Abduction

Theseus, the king of Athens, was in search of a suitable wife. He tried unsuccessfully to pursue an amazon queen, Antiope, and granddaughters of Zeus, Phaedra, and Ariadne.

He didn’t give up on his quest though and next sought out an even more valued prize; Helen of Troy. He abducted her and took her to Attica. Castor and Pollux went to rescue their sister, invaded the king’s land and managed to retrieve her. The twins took Theseus’ mother as revenge and even put the king’s rival on the throne. Aethra, Theseus’ mother, became Helen’s servant, as further punishment for their sister’s kidnapping.

Family

The twins were conceived on the same night but by different fathers. Castor’s father was Tyndareus and Pollux’s father, Zeus. Their mother was Leda, a queen of Sparta. Their sisters were Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra.

Appearance

In Homer’s Iliad, Trojan priest, Dares Phrygius, described the twins as well-built with blond hair and big eyes. In paintings, or sculpture, the twins can frequently be recognized by the skull caps they wear, remnants of the egg they hatched out of. When they appeared at sea, to rescue those in danger, they were said to appear as St. Elmo’s fire, a glowing white or green light on the top of a tall object. When sailors saw the phenomenon, they believed the twins had come to their aid. In art, the twins were frequently depicted on their horses, carrying spears.

Worship

They were worshiped in Rome and Greece, where many temples venerated them. In 495 BC, after victory in battle, the Temple of Castor and Pollux was constructed in Rome. The legend of the battle states the twins led the army and were responsible for its victory. The twins were honored in Rome thereafter and feature on many of their ancient coins.

A dual kingship was a tradition in ancient Sparta, where the land was ruled by the kings of two royal families and each king shared equal authority. The Spartans saw the twins as a valued representation of the dual kingship concept. When one king went to war, the other would remain at home with one of the twins. The ceremony or rite called theoxenia was often linked to the twins too. The rite encompassed the Greek concept of demonstrating hospitality to a stranger. Often the stranger would be a deity in disguise, who would then reward them.

Modern Influence

Gelasius I, a 5th-century pope purported that, even with the advent of Christianity, the cult of Castor and Pollux continued. The twins even featured in 4th century AD pottery with the twelve apostles.

The names Castor and Pollux have been used in many television and film productions, including an opera, in the movie the Hunger Games, in books by Percy Jackson and in the TV series Orphan Black, where male clones are called Castor and their female equivalents, Leda.

Castor and Pollux

Saraswati

Fast Facts:

Pronunciation: suh-ruhs-wuh-tee

Origin: Hindu

Role: Goddess of wisdom, learning, aesthetics and music

Father: Brahma

Husband: Brahma

Symbols: White lotus flower, swan, veena (string instrument)

Who is Saraswati?

Saraswati is a Hindu goddess. Her name means watery, flowing, or elegant. Originally her name was ascribed to the Saraswati River, but later the sacred river was personified and took the form of the deity. The Saraswati River, today called the Sarsuti River, is known to provide good fortune to those who bathe in it, as well as fertility and purification.

The goddess is believed to be the creator of Sanskrit (meaning perfectly done), the ancient language of Hinduism. She is often the muse of Hindu artists and is worshiped in India and Nepal. Saraswati forms part of a trinity of goddesses called the Trivedi, along with Lakshmi and Parvati. She is also known as Bharti, meaning eloquence or Vedamata, mother of the Vedas, and Shatarupa, meaning existence.

Origin

Saraswati is noted first in the Rigveda, ancient Sanskrit hymns dating back to approximately 1500 – 1200 BC. The goddess has been worshiped since the Vedic period and is still worshiped today.

Legends and Stories

She is represented differently in the legends of various regions. Many temples are dedicated to her, including the Gnana Saraswati Temple in India, which is visited by pilgrims each year.

The Curse of Saraswati

In the curse of Saraswati, the goddess curses her husband when she sees him participating in a religious ceremony with another woman, instead of her. Brahma had been waiting for his wife to join him, but she was late and delaying the important ceremony. Brahma prayed to the gods for advice and they answered by creating a new wife for him. When Saraswati came upon the new woman, who had seemingly replaced her, she cursed her husband. He was never to be worshiped again.

Saraswati and the Song of the Gandharva

One day, demigods, called Gandharvas emerged from the scent of flowers. The Gandharvas stole a plant which was cherished by the deities, the Soma plant. The plant held sap which was intoxicating and invigorating. Saraswati went to the demigod’s dwelling place to reclaim the special plant and enchanted the thieves with her veena, a classical stringed musical instrument. The Gandharvas were entranced and begged her for her mystical music. The goddess agreed to teach them, but in exchange, she wanted the Soma plant. The terms were agreed upon and she taught them to play music as she did. The demigods later excelled at the music, to such a degree, that their melodies had more power than the intoxicating plant.

Saraswati and Shiva’s Third Eye

Shiva, the destroyer of the universe, one day looked down at the world and saw how evil and corrupt it had become. He decided the only solution was to wipe out everything with his destructive third eye and opened it. A vicious fire emanated from his third eye, to destroy the three worlds; the physical world, the ancestor’s world and the home of the gods. Saraswati did not agree with him. She placated the people, saying those who were pure would not be destroyed. In order to save them, she transformed herself into a river and her pure waters absorbed the deadly fire.

Festivals

The festival, Saraswati Puja, is held on the first day of spring. She is worshiped with offerings of yellow and white flowers, books, inkpots, and instruments to invoke her blessing in music and writing. Followers wear yellow, which is associated with wisdom, and also adorn statues of Saraswati in yellow silk. Nobody reads or writes a book on the day, with the exception of young children. It is the ideal day for them to learn to write and they do so in a ceremony called Hatey-Khori. The ceremony is believed to set one up to be a learned person. Students frequently pray to the goddess before exams, as the goddess of wisdom and musicians before a show, as the goddess of music, or simply before a lesson of any kind.

Family

The goddess’ husband is Brahma and her son, the sage, Sarasvata. In certain Hindu beliefs, the first man, Manu, was also born from the union of the goddess and Brahma. Manu wrote the Manu-smriti or Laws of Manu, in approximately 100 AD, prescribing the dharma to Hindus.

Appearance

The goddess is depicted as a young woman with white skin, often wearing a white sari. Her disinterest in material possessions is shown by her not wearing any jewelry or bright colors. She is often depicted as seated on a lotus flower or riding a goose or swan. Saraswati is usually shown clutching symbolic objects in her four arms. The objects on the left are a water vessel, signifying purification, and a palm-leaf manuscript. On the right, one hand performs the varada mudra, the ceremony for giving gifts, while the other holds a white lotus flower. Alternatively, she is also frequently seen holding, a classical Hindu musical instrument called a veena, representing the creativity of the arts and the emotions conveyed by music.

Saraswati

Priapus

Fast Facts:

Pronunciation: Pry-uh-puss

Origin: Greek

Role: God of fertility, male genitalia, gardens, fruit

Parents: Aphrodite and Hermes

Symbol: A phallus

Who is Priapus?

Priapus was a minor god in Greek mythology. His distinctive characteristic was his engorged phallus. In Roman mythology, his connection to Ares, the god of War, is more prominent, as Priapus taught the boy the skills of war. Cursed with his gigantic phallus while still in the womb by Hera, he was banished to Earth and raised by shepherds.

Origin

Priapus was worshiped as a deity and also developed a cult following which spread to Italy. The likely origin of his following is in ancient Greece, in the vicinity of Hellespont. The city of Lampsacus in Hellespont is posited as the god’s birthplace due to the ritual performed there. Followers performed a ritual sacrifice of donkeys which was directly linked to Priapus. In art, the god is occasionally depicted in a Persian cap, implying possible non-Greek origins. His influence continued right up until the apostolic era (33 AD – 100 AD) approximately.

Legends and Stories

The stories of Priapus focus on his disproportional organ primarily. Statues of the god were placed in fields to offer protection and hopefully bring about a bountiful crop. The statue also represented a no-entry symbol. Here it implied the trespassers would risk violent rape should they cross the boundary set in place. Rape of men and women was a common occurrence in ancient times. It was viewed as a form of punishment, yet there is no word in ancient Greek or Latin which has exactly the same connotations as the word rape is used today. The god was also the patron of seamen. Sailors used his statue to gain protection and guide their way on the open seas.

In the collection of poems called the Priapeia, thought to be authored in the classical period, we find a collection of epigrams about the god and his gargantuan member. The poems were believed to be written by a group of poets who used to gather at the house of Maecenas, a patron of poets. The god brags about the size of his manhood, his virility and warns of the sexual punishment he will inflict on any trespassing in his gardens or fields.

Lotis

Ovid’s Fasti, published in 8 AD, tells of the god trying to sneak up on the nymph, Lotis, when she falls into a drunken stupor at a celebration. Unfortunately, a donkey warns the party attendees of Priapus’ impending actions and awakens everybody. She prevents him from assaulting her and the god slinks off. Priapus later kills the donkey, leading to the popular sacrifice by the city of Lampsacus.

Appearance

The god is depicted as a bearded and muscular man, with a huge, red, erect phallus.

He is the subject of many Roman paintings, including a well-known fresco where he is seen weighing a bag of money against his phallus. The wall fresco is from the House of Vettii in Pompeii. His gnome-like statues were commonly found in gardens or at intersections in roadways in Rome and Greece. In order to gain the favor of the god, the traveler would need to stroke his phallus.

Modern Influence

Priapus features in many works of modern literature, including those by Vladimir Nabokov, TS Elliot, and John Steinbeck. His influence is also notable in religions. St. Priapus Church, a pagan religion, worships the phallus. Followers believe in worship through group masturbation and treat semen as godly. The Gnostic Catholic Church revered the god as a saint along with other saints such as Krishna, Mohammed, Merlin, Friedrich Nietzsche and Sir Aleister Crowley.

In the medical field, the god’s name is used in relation to a condition called Priapism – a permanently erect penis, even when not sexually aroused.

Priapus

Inanna

Fast Facts:

Pronunciation: Ee-na-na

Origin: Sumerian

Role: Goddess of sex, war, fertility and sensuality

Parents: Enki or Nanna and Ningal

Husband: Dumuzi

Symbols: Eight-pointed star, lion

Who Is Inanna?

Inanna, slso known as Ishtar in Akkadian mythology, is a goddess associated with the morning and evening star, Venus. She is viewed as both an independent, powerful and sensual figure, but also as a young girl under patriarchal control. The goddess is also noted for her dual-nature – her feminine as well as masculine traits.

Origin

Inanna was originally worshiped as a vegetation deity but was later raised to the status of Queen of Heaven, the Mesopotamian’s most favored goddess. In Uruk, she was worshiped as their patron deity, especially at the main center, the Eanna temple (meaning the House of Heaven). The goddess was connected to Uruk, dating as far back as the Uruk period of 4000–3100 BC.

Legends and Stories

The poems of Inanna, such as the Descent of Inanna, carry her qualities through to the ritual and ceremonies in her honor. The sacred marriage of Inanna and Dumuzi was celebrated at the autumn equinox, in order to bring fertility to the lands. The king and priestess would reenact the sexual union of the god and goddess either symbolically or perhaps through actual intercourse.

Inanna and the Huluppu-Tree

In this early creation legend from the epic poem Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld, Inanna is depicted as a young girl. The goddess spots a Huluppu tree on the banks of the Euphrates River and wants to create a throne from the majestic tree. She replants it in her own garden, but later discovers the tree has been filled with nefarious entities: a serpent, Lilitu (a female demon believed to be an early version of Lilith in Jewish mythology) and a Zu-bird. Inanna is distraught and elicits the help of her brother, Gilgamesh. He kills the serpent, sending the other two creatures fleeing. He and his friends then chop down the tree and carve it into a throne and bed for her.

Inanna and Enki

In the story of Inanna and Enki, the goddess steals the meh, the rules for civilization, from her father Enki. She gets the god Enki drunk in a drinking competition and escapes with the meh. She takes them to her city, Uruk. The meh was a powerful tool and included all aspects of humanity, such as law, prostitution, victory, truth and writing. With the meh in her possession, her influence became greater and she was more powerful than ever.

Inanna and Sukaletuda

In this celestial myth of Inanna, a gardener, Sukaletuda is the antagonist. He is a terrible gardener and all the plants he cares for seem to perish. The only plant that survives is a large, shady poplar tree. Inanna spots the luscious tree and decides to have a nap beneath it. The gardener is awestruck by the magnificent goddess. He undresses her while she sleeps and has sexual intercourse with her. When Inanna wakes, she realizes what has happened and goes in search of the perpetrator. She curses the land with plagues so the people may reveal the villainous character to her. With Enki’s help, she finally finds the gardener, by spreading herself across the sky, following the course of Venus. Sukaletuda pleads his case, but the goddess is determined his punishment is death.

Family

Inanna is an important figure in Sumerian mythology. Along with Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Anu, Enlil and Utu, she forms part of the seven divine powers who formed the basis for many gods that followed. Her parents are said to be either Enki or Nanna and Ningal. The goddess also has a sister named Ereskigal and a husband, Dumuzi.

Appearance

In iconography she is shown as a gatepost or reed bundle, to represent abundance and fertility. She is often depicted as a naked female, in her human form. As a goddess of war, she is seen in a robe with weapons at her shoulders and battle armor. She is also shown next to or riding a lion, a reflection of her courage.

Modern Influence

Before the reign of King Hammurabi of Babylon, between 1792 and 1750 BC, women were regarded as equals. Inanna is an excellent example of this in the Sumerian pantheon. She became known as Ishtar in the Assyrian and Neo-Assyrian era and managed to endure the rising patriarchy, by not being replaced by a god as many other goddesses were. This has led to her being an icon in modern feminism.

Inanna

Enki

Fast Facts:

Pronunciation: en-kee

Origin: Sumerian

Role: God of water, fertility, trickery, magic and wisdom

Symbols: A scepter with a goat’s head, a fish, a goat

Parents: Anu, Nammu

Wife: Ninhursag

Who Is Enki?

The Sumerian god’s name means Lord of the Earth. Enki is also known as Ea in Babylonian and Akkadian mythology. Together with Anu and Enlil, he is one of the three key gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon. Though his vast appetite for sexual conquest may bring his mores into question, he was very compassionate in nature. His desire to nurture humans and favor their side over the gods, as well as a tendency towards solving rather than starting conflicts, balanced out his lustful deviance.

Origin

Enki was originally the patron god of the city of Eridu. Eridu was believed to be the first city ever created, according to ancient Sumerian beliefs. Though he is first noted as an Akkadian god, from around 2600 – 2350 BC, shrines to Enki have been found which date back to 5400 BC! In the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth found on ancient tablets and dating to approximately 1100 BC, the universe was originally in a state of chaos. The chaos separated into fresh water, the male principle called Apsu, and salt water, the female principle called Tiamat. Apsu and Tiamat were the first gods and gave birth to Enki, their eldest child.

Legends and Stories

Enki is portrayed as a loving and caring god who uses his wisdom to find the best solution in every situation. Perhaps he was one of the first to fit the now commonplace label of a lover not a fighter.

The Atrahasis

Akkadian/Babylonian mythology states the younger gods were made to do all the work to maintain creation, and grew tired of the daily grind. Not unlike some of the youth of today, they sought a way out of the hard work. As a result, they created other beings to do the work for them: humans. The humans were forged from the sacrifice of one of the younger gods. At first, they created only seven female and seven male humans, but due to their incredible fertility, their numbers soon grew into the hundreds. The larger their number, the noisier they grew. The gods became angered by humankind’s rowdy nature and their population explosion and sought to reduce their numbers. The main instigator of humankind’s extinction was the god Enlil. He tried to eradicate the humans firstly by drought and then by plague, but his plans were continually undermined by Enki.

When Enlil decided to send a great flood, Enki once again took pity on the humans and ensured that one man was made aware of the impending cataclysmic disaster. He relayed the message to a man named Atrahasis, through a reed wall, and instructed him to build a boat. The boat had to house his family as well as two of every kind of animal. Atrahasis built the boat, and when the flood ensued, those aboard were the only humans to survive. Enlil found out it was once again Enki who came to the humans’ aid and sought vengeance on him. Enki convinced Enlil that the man he saved was a righteous man and didn’t deserve to be punished for the sins of his fellow humans. When Atrahasis offered a sacrifice to the gods, the gods were appeased. Enlil was only satisfied, however, when Enki declared humans would no longer live as long as they had and women would not be as fertile as they had once been.

Enki and Inanna

In the myth of Enki and Inanna, Enki was the possessor of the rules of civilization called the meh. At a feast, he tried to get his daughter, Inanna, drunk on beer so he could seduce her. She did not submit to him though and instead, Enki became very intoxicated. In his drunken state, he gave Inanna a gift of the meh. He only realized in the morning the meh was gone and sent demons after Inanna to retrieve it, but she managed to evade them easily and got away. The god was once again thinking of humanity’s needs, as he knew Inanna would give the gift of civilization to them.

Family

Enki and Ninhursag had four children: Marduk, Enbilulu, Asarluhi and the sage Adapa.

Enki, who was also the god of semen, had numerous incestuous affairs, which he ascribed to his insatiable love for his wife. He and Ninhursag had a daughter called Ninsar, who grew to be a woman in only nine days. In his wife’s absence, Enki mistook the girl for Ninhursag and seduced her. A daughter named Ninkurra was born from their union. After Ninkurra also developed into a woman in a matter of days, the same thing occurred. Ninkurra later gave birth to a daughter named Uttu. When Ninhursag heard about her husband’s actions, she cursed him and he became gravely ill. Only she could save him. The only way to heal him was for her to give birth to a further eight children: Nanse, Abu, Ninsitu, Nintulla, Azimua, Ninkasi, Ninti and Emshag.

Appearance

Enki is depicted as a bearded man dressed in long robes and a horned cap. Streams containing fish run from his shoulders, indicating his association with water and its life-giving properties. One river is said to be the Tigris, and the other, the Euphrates. The trees included in the iconography represent the male and female principles in nature.

Modern Influence

Though Enki shrines have been discovered in Eridu, his cult following stretched to Assyria and Babylonia. He was worshiped at his temples in Eridu, called the E-engur-ra (House of the Subterranean Waters) and E-abzu (House of the Abzu). Though no services, as we know them today, were held at the temples, they did provide healing, distribution, and counseling to the people. Eridu was a revered religious city and analogous to the Hebrew Garden of Eden.

In the Sumerian tales of Enki, Ninhursag was depicted as his equal, reflecting the gender equality of the pre-patriarchal society at that time. Later, taken in an Assyrian and Babylonian context, she is relegated to a lesser position, as many female deities were lowered in status with the accepted patriarchal view.

The water god may also have influenced other cultures and religions. The freshwater pool outside Enki’s temples was possibly adopted later by Middle Eastern cultures and may be the equivalent of the sacred fountain or pool found at some mosques, or the Christian receptacle used in baptism.

Enki

Cerberus

Who is Cerberus?

Cerberus, also known as “hound of Hades”, is a multi-headed dog who guards the gates of the underworld. Although he will devour anyone who tries to sneak past him, there’s more to this dog than his monstrous appearance and gruesome job would suggest!

Characteristics

Physical Description

As you might expect of a dog that guards the gates to the underworld, Cerberus is a ghastly monster. He has the body of a dog with shaggy bronze or black fur, but there ends any sort of normality to this monster.

Cerberus has multiple heads—usually three, although some writers have given him as many as one hundred—with “eyes that flash fire,” “jagged teeth” and three tongues per mouth. Most writers claim that all of these heads are dog-like, but a few writers have described half of the heads as dog-like and the other half are “heads of beasts of all sorts.”

Cerberus’s tail slowly morphs into a serpent, with a venomous head at the end, and more serpents sprout from his body. Some writers claim that these serpents form a mane around his head, while others describe the serpents growing up from his spine or hanging down like tangled fur all over his body.

Personality

Despite his nightmarish appearance and his position at the gates of the underworld, Cerberus was not a demonic creature.

Above all else, this mighty dog was loyal. He was deeply devoted to his master, Hades, and when Hades decided to make him one of the guardians of the underworld, he became devoted to his duty as well. Cerberus obeyed two rules: he prevented living souls from entering the underworld and dead souls from leaving the underworld. Anyone, alive or dead, who tried to break these rules and sneak past Cerberus was sure to be torn to pieces—but remember, this was a duty given to him by his master, not a random slaughter of innocent victims.

Cerberus was capable of being loving and affectionate, as well as loyal. Greek writers described him “fawning over” the new souls who arrived at the underworld, welcoming them with excited affection. He also has a special relationship with Persephone, who he allows free passage to and from the underworld.

Legends about Cerberus

Adoption

Although Cerberus spent most of his life in the care of Hades, he was actually born to Typhon and Echidna.

Typhon was the deadliest monster in Greek mythology, a huge dragon with a hundred heads and even more wings. He spread fear and disaster everywhere he went and terrified even the Olympian gods. Echidna was a half-woman, half-snake creature known as the “mother of all monsters.” She lived in a cave, where she was visited only by Typhon, her lover.

Together, Typhon and Echidna produced Greece’s most dreaded monsters, including the Lynean Hydra, the Sphinx, the Nemean Lion, the Chimera, and, of course, Cerberus. Zeus allowed all of these monsters to live, claiming that he spared their lives so that they could serve as challenges for the Greek heroes. In reality, he was probably just afraid of provoking Typhon’s wrath!

Most of these monstrous children were allowed to run wild, but Zeus saw special potential in Cerberus. He took the young pup and gave it to Hades, to be raised as a guardian of the underworld.

Encounter with Orpheus

Hades was an excellent guardian, but he wasn’t invincible.

Orpheus was the first mortal to overcome Cerberus. Orpheus was revered in his kingdom for his amazing musical talents. It was said that

“Hermes invented the lyre, but Orpheus perfected it.”

His music could even make rocks and water dance—so when he fell in love with the beautiful nymph, Eurydices, he had no problem wooing her with his song. But tragedy struck on their wedding day. Eurydices was attacked by a satyr, then fell into a nest of vipers, where she received a fatal bite. Immediately, her spirit past to the underworld.

When Orpheus found his beautiful bride, dead and cold in the viper’s nest, he played such mournful songs on his lyre that all the nymphs and gods wept. They advised him to go to the underworld and try to soften Hades’ heart with his music.

But before Orpheus could reach Hades, he had to get past Cerberus.

Orpheus snuck as close as he could to the mighty dog, who sat in his customary place, guarding the gates to the underworld. Then, still in hiding, Orpheus began to play a gentle lullaby. His magic didn’t fail him. The music made the dog so drowsy that it laid down and, eventually, began to snore.

Now, Orpheus’s path to Hades was clear. He entered the underworld, kneeled before Hades and Persephone, and played his music. The gods wept for his sadness and agreed to let Eurydices return with him, provided that he didn’t look at her until they had returned to the land of the living. Orpheus, with his heart full of joy, ran back to the entrance of the underworld, but just before he stepped into the land of the living, he glanced over his shoulder to make sure that Eurydices was following him. Instantly, she turned back into a ghost and disappeared into the underworld.

Encounter with Hercules

Heracles was the second mortal to conquer Cerberus, and although the details of this story are more debated, one thing is certain: Heracles was not as gentle as Orpheus.

Eurystheus ordered Heracles to bring Cerberus up from the underworld. This was to be Heracles’ twelfth and final task, and Eurystheus was confident that it was impossible.

Luckily for Heracles, he had a lot of help.

First, he was allowed to participate in the Eleusinian Mysteries, which studied the way that Persephone was allowed to pass in and out of the underworld.

Next, he was assisted by Athena and Hermes, who guided him to a secret entrance to the underworld. Heracles used this secret entrance to confront Hades before he had to face Cerberus. According to some legends, Heracles attacked Hades, shooting arrows and throwing stones at him. According to other legends, the mere fact that Heracles had discovered a secret entrance to the underworld was enough to intimidate Hades. Either way, the god of the underworld agreed to let Heracles remove Cerberus, provided that he could capture him without using weapons.

Heracles began to make his way out of the underworld, this time heading for the entrance that was guarded by Cerberus. On his way, he met more helpers, the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, who had been imprisoned after they tried to steal Persephone. They offered to help Heracles subdue Cerberus, in exchange for him breaking the chains that trapped them in the underworld. Heracles agreed and broke their chains, although, according to some legends, Pirithous was swallowed in an earth quake as soon as his chains were broken.

At last, Heracles and his gang approached Cerberus. Using the Nemean lion’s skin as a shield, Heracles threw his arms around Cerberus’s neck and began to squeeze the dog. Meanwhile, Theseus prevented Cerberus from fighting back. After a few minutes, Cerberus collapsed from being strangled. Heracles then bound the mighty guardian in chains and dragged him up from the underworld.

The sunlight in the land of the living made Cerberus sick, and he vomited all over the grass, causing poisonous flowers to grow up. Although he was still sick and weak, the poor dog howled in shame and despair. Nevertheless, Heracles paraded him around Greek cities for weeks, until the gods were tired of seeing the poor beast suffer. Then and only then did Heracles deliver Cerberus to Eurystheus, who returned him to Hades.

Cultural Representation

Origin

Cerberus first appears as “the hound of Hades” in Greek texts dating back to the 8th century BC. By the 7th century, he had been given his name in texts and begun to appear in paintings and statues as well. Eventually, Homer, Hesiod, Plato, Plutarch, Ovid, Virgil, and Seneca all contributed to Cerberus’s legend.

Some scholars have drawn a connection between Cerberus and the Egyptian god Anubis, who had the head of a jackal and was seen as a guardian of the underworld. It’s possible that Anubis, who pre-dated Cerberus, may have influenced the legend.

Modern Appearances

Today, Cerberus is still a well-known and terrifying character. He has appeared in Marvel comics, the Harry Potter series, and Final Fantasy. A number of military weapons and technologies have also been named after this protective beast.

Cerberus

Gnome

What is a Gnome?

A Gnome is a small creature with an affinity for the earth. In old legends, these little men were miners who lived underground. Today, they have come out of their tunnels to help humans tend to their gardens.