Ptah

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: Pi-tah


• Origin: Egypt


• Cult Center: Memphis


• Role: God of Creation, Fertility, Arts and Crafts


• Symbols: Sceptre, Djed, Ankh


• Wife: Sekhmet


• Children: Nefertum, Maahes, Imhotep

Who is Ptah?

To understand who Ptah was, we need to go all the way back to the beginning of Ancient Egyptian times, even before 3000 BC, because Ptah was the creator of the physical universe. You may think of him as an artisan, the demiurge and crafter of all things. Wonder how he did all of this creating? Well, known to be quite willful, he just had to think about it. That’s right – first he conceived the ideas, then felt them in his heart. Once he spoke the words, life and things were created.

In addition to being quite brilliant, he was also very handsome. Ptah, the handsome deity of creation. He is most often depicted wrapped up in cloth like a mummy, but his hands are left free to hold a staff. He had a shaved head and wore a skull cap. If you don’t think this sounds too attractive, please remember, fashions were different back then.

In addition to all the creating he had to do, Ptah was High Priest of his temple at Memphis, and held the esteemed title Great Leader of Craftsmen.

Origin

When the city of Memphis became the administrative capital of unified Egypt, the status of Ptah rose too. He was one of the most prominent gods of the time. Around 700 BC, a text called the Memphis Creation Myth was written. Of course it was written in Memphis, as the local citizens were interested in bringing their patron god of the city to the top of the god charts.

As the Memphis Creation Myth is told, Ptah was identified with the first bit of dry land to emerge from the endless depths of the waters. It is for this reason he is also known as a god of the earth.

Ptah created Atum, and all the other deities of the Ennead, a full set of nine deities called the “Great Ennead of Heliopolis”. They were Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Nut and Geb, Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys.

He thought about them; this was called, “divine knowledge”. He also spoke about them, which was called “divine utterance,” and voila! With “divine energy”, the 9 deities were created. In Ancient Egypt the cosmic order consisted of the natural order and the political order. The first five deities, Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, and Nut, were the divine forces that created the elements of nature. Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys are correlated with political order, which was considered equally important at the time.

Family of Ptah

Similarly to cities of today, each city of Ancient Egypt had its own theories and own way of doing things. People took incredible pride in their deities. In Memphis, they claimed Ptah was married to Sekhmet, a local goddess, but elsewhere he was known as the husband of Wadjet. He was the father of Nefertum and Maahes, and Sekhmet was their mother. He also adopted Imhotep, the first known architect, engineer and physician in history, who was a human. Imhotep was given divine status after his death. Ptah had no parents; since he was the creator, he came first.

Sekhmet

Sekhmet is also one of the oldest and most powerful deities. She is a lioness, the daughter of the sun dod Ra, and is known as the goddess of the sun and war. She also represents destruction, plagues and healing. She was a protector of the pharaoh of Upper Egypt during war, and the patron goddess of healers.

Nefertum

The son of the lioness and the creator, Nefertum, was born from a blue lotus bud that was floating in the water at the very beginning of creation. He represents the sunrise, and it is said he created mankind from his tears.

Imhotep

A sage and chief minister of the court of Pharaoh Djoser, Imhotep officiated over the building of the Step Pyramid of Djoser. Also known as a major figure in Ancient Egyptian medicine, he was given the status of a deity thousands of years after his death.

Historical Influence

Ptah was one of the Triad of Memphis, along with his wife, Sekhmet and their son, Nefertum. When Memphis became the capital of Egypt, Ptah got ultimate creator status and was worshipped throughout all of Egypt. He was so popular it is believed by many that the name “Egypt” is derived from the Greek spelling of the temple in Memphis; “Hwt-kA-ptH”, “the temple of the Ka of Ptah“, or “House of the Soul of Ptah”.

The ruins of Memphis are located about 12 miles southwest of Cairo. Today, little remains of the old city that was the capital of Ancient Egypt and one of the most powerful cities in the world at that time.

Memphite theology was recorded on a granite slab, probably around 710 BC. It is based on the text of lost documents dating from approximately 2400 BC. The first inscription identifies Ptah.

Symbolic Influence

All of Memphite theology is based on Ptah. The creation process continued until everything in the world was created, and all the gods and goddesses that oversaw them; until everything came into being, in other words. This process extended beyond earth and life to the afterlife. Not only was Ptah a god of creation, but he was also the catalyst to a soul’s rebirth in the afterlife. In the Ancient Egyptian religion, the dead were believed to be reborn into an eternal life. A ritual called the Opening of the Mouth ceremony was initiated so the spirit would be able to eat and drink, ensuring its survival in the afterlife.

Images of Ptah are known to depict him contained wrapped like a mummy, holding a sceptre, and wearing a beard. These three symbols represent his three major influences: power, life and stability.

Ptah

Producer

Producer Definition

Producers are organisms capable of creating simple carbohydrates such as glucose, from gaseous carbon dioxide. This process of producing organic molecules from inorganic carbon sources is called primary production. The energy for this process can come from solar radiation, chemical reactions or from the heat in deep ocean geothermal vents. On land, most producers are plants. Marine production is dominated by algae and plankton.

Types of producers

There are two major types of primary producers – phototrophs and chemotrophs.

Phototrophs use the energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. The process by which this occurs is called photosynthesis. Later, the chemical bond energy in carbohydrates is released through respiration and used to fuel metabolic pathways. A similar process occurs in chemotrophs, except that the energy source is inorganic oxidation and reduction reactions. Chemotrophs are nearly always microscopic and are found in regions where water and light are scarce.

Occasionally, terms such as ‘secondary producers’ and ‘tertiary producers’ are used. Animals that consume plants are considered secondary producers since they ‘produce’ the biomass for their predators. Similarly, carnivores eaten by other species are considered ‘tertiary producers’. At each trophic level the consumer can only obtain 10% of the calories available to its producer. Therefore, it is rare to see energy pyramids containing more than four levels, or ‘quaternary producers’.

Examples of producers

Photosynthetic producers can be broadly grouped under three categories: plants, cyanobacteria and phytoplankton.

Example #1: Plants

From microscopic species to redwoods that tower over the earth, there is astonishing diversity among plants. Remarkably, these varied species share exactly the same mechanism for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs in specialized organelles called chloroplasts that contain pigments such as chlorophyll.

These pigments are usually located in a scaffold of membrane-bound proteins called light-harvesting complexes. Here, light-driven oxidation induces the pigment to lose an electron. The high-energy electron then enters an electron transport chain, where it travels from one protein to another, losing energy at each step, coupled with a series of oxidation and reduction reactions. The movement of a charged particle through the electron transport chain also fuels a proton gradient across the membrane. The proton gradient and the electron transport chain together, power the formation of the energy currency of the cell, Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). The photo-oxidized chlorophyll pigment is then returned to its native state through the splitting of a water molecule, which releases molecular oxygen.

Example #2: Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are photosynthesizing prokaryotes. They are among the earliest life forms to have appeared on earth with a fossil record that stretches back to over three billion years. They also contributed towards creating an oxygen-rich atmosphere over the course of two billion years, paving the way for the kind of life forms we see today. Due to their photosynthetic activity, they were initially classified as algae and the term ‘blue-green algae’ continues to be used informally to refer to these prokaryotes.

Cyanobacteria are considered to be the endosymbionts that evolved into modern day chloroplasts. These prokaryotes also have membrane protein complexes in their cell membrane. Some of these membranes form cylindrical thylakoid sheets, that resemble the internal structure of chloroplasts. These similarities make them useful as model organisms for the study of photosynthesis. However, there are some differences between the pathways used in modern cyanobacteria and plants. One of these arises from the marine nature of these prokaryotes, that requires them to ‘concentrate’ carbon dioxide in small vesicle-bound compartments to improve the efficiency of photosynthetic enzymes such as RuBisCO.

They are crucial for the health and survival of marine ecosystems because they play an important role in creating bioavailable carbon and nitrogen. Nitrogen is fixed as ammonia and used to create nitrogen-containing compounds such as proteins and nucleic acids. Since cyanobacteria are consumed by organisms in the ocean bed, in shallow waters as well as in open seas, they are among the most important marine primary producers.

Example #3: Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton are microscopic free floating plants that perform most of the photosynthetic activity of the ocean. They are at the base of marine ecosystems and maintain the oxygen levels of the ocean as well as the atmosphere. They are consumed by microscopic herbivorous animals called zooplankton which are then eaten by organisms higher up in the food pyramid.

The appearance of phytoplankton is said to have contributed to a major evolutionary explosion 250 million years ago. After a mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic era, an increase in nutrients and a reduction in predation allowed these plants to proliferate in the oceans. Their abundance and enhanced nutritional content also allowed primary consumers like zooplankton, to proliferate. As these groups of organisms grew and colonized larger ocean tracts, some populations diversified, adapted to new environments which finally led to an enormous increase in species diversity in the oceans.

Functions of producers

Producers are the primary source of biomass on earth. They form the bottom of all energy pyramids and are the first trophic level in every ecosystem. Primary producers harness the energy from the sun or from chemical reactions and fix inorganic carbon in the form of carbohydrates. Their role in sequestering carbon dioxide makes them crucial for weather patterns across the globe, maintaining optimal temperature and annual rainfall. Photosynthesis also releases oxygen as a byproduct and this is consumed by all organisms to release the chemical energy stored in carbohydrates.

Producers such as lichens, are important as pioneer species, altering the abiotic environment to make it more habitable. They accelerate weathering and enhance the deposition of organic matter, leading to the formation of soil.

Along with abiotic factors, producers play a crucial role in determining the species diversity in a region. For example, when plankton are the primary producers, filter feeding herbivores will proliferate, followed by carnivores that can consume these organisms. On the other hand, regions that contain tall trees will end up favoring herbivores like giraffes that can reach the higher branches and thereafter select for predators that can hunt these quick animals. Thus, the primary producer underpins the entire ecosystem.

Related Biology Terms

• ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleoside triphosphate containing two high energy bonds that is used as the energy currency of the cell.


• Light-dependent reactions – Reactions that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast which begin with the photo-oxidation of chlorophyll and end with release of molecular oxygen, reduced nucleotides and ATP.


• Reaction centers – Regions in chloroplasts where the light energy of a photon is harvested by a colored pigment and processed to drive other chemical reactions, ultimately leading to the formation of reduced carbohydrates.


• RuBisCO – An enzyme present in chloroplasts that catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and the five-carbon sugar, Ribulose biphosphate. This is the first step in the series of reactions that creates bioavailable carbon from gaseous carbon dioxide.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Name the plant organelle where photosynthesis occurs.
A. Mitochondria
B. Chloroplast
C. Nucleus
D. Cell membrane

Answer to Question #1

B is correct. Chloroplast. The membranes of a chloroplast are involved in photosynthesis, however, the membrane of the plant cell itself does not play an important role. Mitochondria are sites for the oxidation of carbohydrates, rather than the reduction of carbon dioxide. The nucleus is the site for sequestering genetic material.

2. Which of these is a primary producer?
A. Brown algae
B. Flowering plants
C. Chemotrophic bacteria
D. All of the above

Answer to Question #2

D is correct. All the organisms are primary producers. Flowering plants and algae are phototrophs. Chemotrophic bacteria use the energy released from inorganic oxidation/reduction reactions.

3. Photosynthesis involves the release of electrons from
A. Oxygen in water molecules
B. Carbon in glucose molecules
C. Carbon in carbon dioxide
D. Oxygen in the atmosphere

Answer to Question #3

A is correct. Oxygen in water molecules. Photosynthesis can be described as a process where water is oxidized to release oxygen gas, and carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrate. When the carbon in glucose is oxidized using oxygen, it is called respiration.

Producer

Cronus

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: kroh-nuh-s


• Other Names: Kronos


• Origin: Greece


• Cult Center: Athens, Gades, Lebadeia, Olympia


• Role: Ruler of the Heavens


• Symbols: grain, harpe, scythe, sickle, snake


• Wife: Rhea (his twin sister)


• Children: Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon, Zeus

Who is Cronus?

Cronus, son of Uranus and Gaia, sat alone as King of the Elysian Fields, a blessed place awaiting the righteous dead. He reflected on his time in the dark prison of Tartarus with its high walls of bronze, where he had nothing but time and darkness. “After all this…” he thought. “I am now the lord of time. It is all I have left.” Time to reflect deep in the pit of Tartarus on things he had done. Time to reflect on things that had been done to him. And time to reflect on what he needed to do now that he had been freed.

Origin

Long ago, before existence, there was a vast space of emptiness known as Chaos. Erebus, a place of death along with Night, came into being. Then Love and Light emerged and with it, the goddess of the earth, Gaia. Gaia eventually gave birth to Uranus, the god of the sky, and together they produced six sets of twins, one of whom was Cronus. He had grown quickly, as gods do, and soon realized his incredible strength.

Family

Cronus’ mother, Gaia, bore several children of Uranus including the 12 twins; Iapetus and Themis, Cronus and Rhea, Hyperion and Theia, Coeus and Phoebe, Crius and Mnemosyne, and Oceanus and Tethys. Uranus had already deemed these children worthy. They were uncommonly beautiful, and each personified a force of nature in their own unique way. They were even given the name “Titans” in recognition of their incredible strength, and each grew with the grace and majesty one would expect of divine beings.

But after the Titans were born, Cronus’ monstrous other siblings were birthed. The Cyclopes, horrors with their single round eye and their stubborn, violent, and emotionless nature could never be worthy of anything but destruction. The Hecatonchires were even worse. They were incredibly strong and fierce, even more so than the mighty Cyclopes. With their 100 arms and 50 heads, Cottus, Briareus, and Gynes were total abominations in their father’s eyes, and he imprisoned his youngest offspring in Tartarus.

History

Cronus Rises to Power

The story of Cronus’ reign began when he alone stood by his mother to free his monstrous siblings. He met with his mother, Gaia, in the silent evening with the other twins. He couldn’t stand seeing her state of grief and despair over the imprisonment of her monstrous children.

“My children, I seek a great hero among the Titans. One who will overthrow their father and liberate their siblings!” Gaia said to them. Only Cronus would agree to do what must be done.

Seizing his opportunity, Cronus said, “I will stand by you, mother!”

Together, they worked out a plan, and Cronus promised to his mother that her children would be released. Silently, their plan began to take form. Even gods had desires that needed to be satisfied, and Uranus was no exception. Cronus could recognize that Gaia was desired and beautiful. Gaia would arrange to meet with Uranus in the night, while Cronus would be secretly waiting in ambush. At whatever cost, Uranus had to feel the bitterness that Gaia had been enduring for so long. Her time for revenge was at hand and through that revenge, so would come power.

Cronus was given a mighty sickle made of stone. The large adamantine blade glistened and was ready to taste blood and castrate Uranus. Tonight, Gaia’s children would be set free. “And tonight,” thought Cronus, with a glint of greed in his eyes, “I will rule the universe in my father’s place!”

Cronus waited patiently until Gaia and Uranus met. As she seduced him one last time at the gate of her imprisoned children, Cronus swiftly leaped forward bearing the sickle. With a great slice, Uranus’ blood and testicles spilled into the sea. The swirling blood began to change and take the form of two enormous beings, Erinyes and Meliae, the race of Gigantes. White foam spilled out of the testicles, taking shape as the beautiful goddess, Aphrodite.

Uranus fell to the ground, enraged and in terrible pain. The vicious attack upon him by his own son was realized too late. Swearing vengeance, he gathered what little strength he had left and disappeared, leaving Cronus alone to witness the monstrous forms at the gates of their prison, Tartarus.

Cronus Begins His Reign

“The time for the mighty reign of Cronus will begin today!” he proclaimed. But then Cronus gazed over towards the gate. He quickly realized why his younger siblings were imprisoned when he saw their violent twisted faces, staring eyes, and many hands. They shouted viciously and angrily at him. He had never seen them before; they had been so swiftly hidden away. Instantly he knew that they were dangerous. He cared for his mother, but these creatures were a threat to his throne and his power. They could not be set free, promise or no promise. Gaia would never understand this, being blinded by a mother’s love, but Cronus’ eyes were wide open to the threatening horror within that pit.

Cottus, Briareus, Gynes, and the Cyclopes screamed in terrible anguish and fury as their gate was shut yet again, and the shade of darkness pulled over their eyes. A mighty dragon, Campe, was set in front of their prison as a guard. Cronus sat alone in the firelight from the dragon’s breath, deep in thought over what he had seen and done. He had just overthrown his own father and seized the throne with his sister, Rhea. He had broken a promise to his beloved mother, justifying it to himself over and over again to relieve himself of his guilt. “I am no monster, they are,” he thought to himself.

Together with Rhea, Cronus declared that a new golden age of righteousness would begin. The mortals on earth celebrated and began to live in a time where there was no need for laws or rules, without immorality and without evil. But Cronus knew better than to believe it was any kind of age of righteousness. He realized that if he could overthrow his own father, what was to stop him from suffering the same fate? What would stop an uprising from any one of his children? And his grief-stricken mother would never accept having her other children re-imprisoned within Tartarus. She knew, and had prophesized, that he would suffer the same fate as his father and he became consumed with fear. Cronus knew that something would have to be done about his own children as soon as they were born.

Cronus Establishes His Line

Rhea soon gave birth to Demeter, Hestia, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. As each was born, Cronus quickly dispatched them by devouring them. They would be prevented from ever carrying out the prophecy as long as they were imprisoned within his belly. Already hardened by what happened with his mother and father, he could see no other option.

A sixth child was soon to be born. Cronus knew that Rhea could not bear to see her latest child born into the heavens only to be rapidly devoured. But he did not know that she was meeting in secret with Gaia, who had already suffered the loss of her own children.

“I cannot bear to watch you lose any more of your children any more than I could bear to lose mine. Together we must stop this next tragedy from taking place. I know what to do. Take this Omphalos Stone and quickly have it wrapped in swaddling cloth,” instructed Gaia to Rhea. “Zeus will be birthed secretly in Crete and cared for under our guidance until he is old enough to free his siblings, free my children, and then depose his father.”

Cronus Falls From Power

The time had come for Zeus’ birth. Cronus saw his impending victory over this last threat and without question grabbed the stone from Rhea’s arms, quickly swallowing it. This was it! Delicious victory and the last portion of the prophecy was defeated! Nothing could stop him now from keeping his power. The mortals on earth would go on celebrating their Golden Age, never knowing what had taken place above in the heavens.

Cronus, however, would never know about the child hidden away on Mount Ida, and who would cause him to suffer the same fate as his father, until it was too late. A group of armored male dancers called the Kouretes shouted, clapped their hands, and rattled their shields to mask the baby’s cries from Cronus. And the aid of a nymph, Adamanthea, would help suspend Zeus between the heavens and earth, far from Cronus’ gaze until he was of age.

Time and more time passed. Time enough for Cronus to forget the prophecy and let his guard down. “MORE WINE!” bellowed Cronus. Drunk on his own power as well as wine, he couldn’t see past his own vision of never-ending glory in the dregs of his empty cup. Rhea emerged bearing a flask of wine; concealed within it was an emetic potion that had been given to Zeus by Gaia. Cronus gulped it down, and then suddenly collapsed to the ground clutching his stomach.

“What treachery was this?” cried Cronus, but that was the extent of the words he could get out. A torrent of sickness poured out of him as he twisted and moaned in agony.

First, the stone wrapped in swaddling cloth was regurgitated. Then, in the reverse order in which they were devoured, out came the other siblings of Zeus. Cold with sweat and sickness, Cronus could only watch in terror as the prophecy became fulfilled. Zeus sliced him open, just as he had done to his own father, spilling his blood onto the ground. As each child emerged and stood, they were fully-grown and in complete command of their godly powers. Together with Zeus, they would stand united and form half of a new pantheon, the Olympians (the remaining half would later be formed of Zeus’ children), and soon the great war of Titanomachy began.

Cronus didn’t wallow in pain and fury for long. He joined with some of the Titans, and the great war between pantheons raged on for 10 long years until Zeus released the Hecatonchires and Cyclopes. With the aid of these new monstrous allies, Zeus quickly defeated Cronus.

Current Influence

Cronus’ imprisonment ended with an act of mercy and pity from Zeus.

“Father, I see that you have begun to understand what it means to be the lord of time. At last you understand what it means to be a true god. I release you from Tartarus,” said Zeus.

“I grant you the Elysian Fields, a blessed place awaiting the righteous dead. Begin your rule over this place as King, under a second golden age.” Cronus wept tears of relief at Zeus’ pity and mercy. No longer did he have to suffer the same fate as his father. The people on earth would forever know him as a god of benevolence, kindness, and generosity.

Cronus to this day is often personified as “Father Time,” depicted with a scythe representing harvest.

Cronus

Abiotic Factors

Abiotic Factors Definition

Abiotic factors are non-living factors in an ecosystem. As part of the ecosystem, these factors do affect the living things in it, but they are not living themselves.

The term “abiotic” comes from the root parts “a-” meaning “without,” and “bio,” meaning “life.” The living parts of an ecosystem are called “biotic factors.”

Examples of Abiotic Factors

Common examples of abiotic factors include:

• Wind


• Rain


• Humidity


• Latitude


• Temperature


• Elevation


• Soil composition


• Salinity (the concentration of salt in water)


• Radiation


• Pollution

Abiotic factors make up for much of the variation seen between different ecosystems. By determining the availability of such essential resources as sunlight, water, oxygen, and minerals, abiotic factors determine which organisms can survive in a given place.

What follows are just a few examples of how abiotic factors can shape ecosystems by determining which organisms can live in them, and what those organisms must do to survive.

Example #1: What Makes the Difference between Forests and Plains?

In many places, for example, prairie or savannah ecosystems evolve instead of forest or jungle ecosystems, because there is not enough rain to support trees. Other factors, such as high winds and soil that is poor in essential nutrients, may also help to create an environment in which trees cannot survive but prairie plants are prevalent.

Abiotic factors may also include added challenges to life forms, such as temperature extremes, high winds, or even pollution. Indeed, human pollution has become an important factor in determining which life forms survive in some ecosystems.

Example #2: Pollution and the Peppered Moth

In the United Kingdom two types of moths were found at the beginning of the 19th century. By far the most common was the white-bodied peppered moth, whose black-speckled white body allowed it to blend in with tree bark to avoid being eaten by birds.

During the Industrial Revolution, however, coal-burning plants in cities in the United Kingdom produced massive amounts of ash, which covered the surrounding forests.

As a consequence, white-bodied moths now stood out against the dark tree trunks, but black-bodied moths, who had once been at a disadvantage against the pale tree bark, could now hide more effectively.

Naturalists studying the peppered moth found in subsequent decades that black-bodied moths were dominant near cities with factories, whereas white-bodied moths remained dominant in the soot-free forests of rural areas.

Example #3: Desert Abiotic Factors

Perhaps the most obvious biome that is determined by abiotic factors is the desert. Because of their low rainfall, deserts develop ecosystems very different from those of any other habitat.

Scientists use the term “desert” to refer to any area which has less than 25cm, or 9.75 inches, of rain or snow in an average year. By this definition, deserts cover about 20% of Earth’s land area, including the continent of Antarctica.

Desert ecosystems can also experience extreme temperature swings, because open water and water vapor act as temperature stabilizing elements in wetter biomes.

Between the low rainfall and the often extreme temperatures, deserts develop unique organisms and food chains.

Example #4: Tropical Rainforest Abiotic Factors

At the other end of the spectrum of biomes, tropical rainforests are one of the wettest ecosystems on Earth. To be classified as a rainforest, an area must receive at least 75 inches (190cm) of rain per year. Most rainforests get well over 100 inches (254cm) annually.

Tropical rainforests are rainforests located in the tropics. The tropics form a belt around the equator and receive a great deal of sunlight throughout the year, resulting in warm temperatures and mild seasons.

Due to their warm, wet climates, rainforests develop extremely dense, lush, and complex ecosystems. Rainforests are unique in that they consist of life layered on top of life – most scientists divide tropical rainforests into six different layers, each of which hosts different types of life!

The topmost layer of the rainforest, or “canopy” receives the most sunlight, while the bottom-most layers receive very little sunlight because of shade from plants in the other layers.

Example #5: Tundra Abiotic Factors

Tundra is another unique type of biome that is created by abiotic factors.

Tundras are located in the north polar region, where they receive so little light and heat from the sun that only a thin, top layer of soil thaws sufficiently to allow plant growth. A deep layer of soil, called subsoil, can remain frozen for thousands of years.

Because the subsoil remains frozen, trees, which require deep roots, cannot grow in the tundra. Instead, grasses and other small plants which can grow in the thin soil flourish.

Example #6: Abiotic Factors in the Ocean

The ocean plays host to some unique abiotic factors. For one thing, the ocean contains salt. For another, it has the attribute of depth, which effects the amount of sunlight that sea life receives.

The saltiness of the ocean is quite important for the animals living there. All of them must adapt to prevent the ocean’s salt from disrupting their biochemistry. Dolphins that swim in the ocean get all of their water from their prey animals, because the salt water would dehydrate them if they drank it. Some fish, in fact, can survive only in salt water because they have adapted so well to the environment.

The ocean, like the rainforest, also has a number of different zones which receive different amounts of sunlight, and host very different types of life. This is because water itself both blocks out and absorbs sunlight.

Life in the topmost zone of the ocean, called the epipelagic zone, receives a large amount of sunlight. This is where photosynthetic ocean life, like coral and seaweed, is found.

The abyssopelagic zone at the bottom of the ocean, by contrast, receives almost no sunlight. This part of the ocean hosts strange sea creatures, some of whom actually cannot survive at the surface because their body structures depend on the high water pressure at depth.

The very deep trenches of the ocean contain an even colder, darker zone called the “hadeopelagic.” This zone is named after the Greek underworld.

Related Biology Terms

• Biome – A large, naturally occurring community of life forms. Biomes can be thought of as “types of ecosystems.” Rainforest, tundra, savanna, temperate forest, and temperate grassland are examples of biomes.


• Biotic factor – A living element of an ecosystem, such as a plant, animal, or bacteria. Biotic and abiotic factors together make up an ecosystem.


• Convergent evolution – Occurs when unrelated life forms evolve very similar solutions to environmental problems.


• Ecosystem – A biological community of organisms and their environment. “Ecosystem” and “biome” are very similar terms, although “biome” usually refers to a specific type of ecosystem such as a rainforest, tundra, etc.


• Energy Pyramid – A graphic illustration which is used to show how energy flows through an ecosystem. These pyramids typically have plants, which efficiently and directly harvest sunlight, at the “bottom” and the top predator at the top, with herbivores and intermediate prey species in the middle.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Which of the following is abiotic factor?
A. Trees and temperature
B. Trees and rainfall
C. Bacteria and predators
D. Temperature and rainfall

Answer to Question #1

D is correct. Trees, bacteria and predators are living things, so they would be biotic factors.

2. The only difference between desert and tropical rainforest is the amount of rainfall.
A. True
B. False

Answer to Question #2

False. While rainfall is one difference, tropical rainforests must also exist in the tropics, where they receive a lot of sunlight all year ’round and the temperature does not vary much by season.

Rainforests can exist outside of the tropics, but they are not called “tropical,” and they have some different characteristics from tropical rainforests due to the varying temperature and amount of sunlight throughout the year.

3. Human activity can create new abiotic factors.
A. True
B. False

Answer to Question #3

True. As seen in the case of the peppered moth, human activity can change the non-living factors in ecosystems.

Abiotic Factors

Geb

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Fast Facts:

• Origin: Egyptian


• Pronunciation: [geb]


• Other Names: Seb, Sebb, Keb, Kebb


• Symbols: geese, snakes, bulls, barley, earth


• Cult Center: Heliopolis


• Parents: Shu and Tefnut


• Offspring: Osiris, Isis, Seth, Nephthys

Who Is Geb?

Geb was popularly known as the god of the earth to Ancient Egyptians. Although his name translates to “weak one” or “lame one”, Geb is considered one of the mighty kings of the Egyptian gods. He protected the sun god while a passenger on the great sun ship, and was also tasked with guiding the deceased to the afterlife and providing provisions – meat and drink – to traveling souls. Geb’s name was often invoked to heal sick people, especially those stricken with illnesses created by natural elements, such as scorpion stings and colds. Geb’s roles in Egyptian society were limitless as one of the most powerful gods; his similarly powerful myth lives on in today’s society.

The legendary Geb is often thought as ambivalent to his human worshippers, creating earthquakes with his laughter and droughts without reason. As the god of the earth, he made the massive, inhospitable deserts isolating Egypt from the rest of the ancient world. But Geb could be a kind god too. After all, he created the lush, fertile lands surrounding the Nile River. Under Geb’s influence, believers would be blessed with bountiful harvests and enough crops to fatten their livestock.

Origin

Although the exact origins of the Geb myth are illusive, many scholars agree that the god’s religious fervor was centralized to the city of Heliopolis. Located near Egypt’s modern day capital, Cairo, Heliopolis originated, adopted, and spread the Ancient Egyptian creation myth that all later narratives evolved from. Condensed, the creation myth describes the inception of existence via a hermaphroditic deity, Atum. Atum is both the original king and creator of the gods.

Legends and Stories

The Egyptian god of the earth is affiliated with many legends involving ancient society. In the Heliopolis creation myth, Geb is created by his parents and then falls in love with his sister, Nut, goddess of the sky. Shu, Geb’s father and god of the air, is angered by this and physically separates the two by placing himself between them. This legend explains why the air (Shu) separates earth (Geb) and sky (Nut).

Another legend surrounding the Egyptian god Geb involves the conflict between two of his offspring: Set and Horus. The brothers fought to take control of Egypt, and when the infighting became troublesome to Geb, he appeased both sons by giving power to each: Horus was given Lower Egypt and Set maintained Upper Egypt. The tale of Geb’s fair judgment inspired many Egyptians and influenced modern day mediation techniques.

Family

Geb was born after the joining of two powerful deities. Unlike most gods, however, his parents were both created by the ultimate Egyptian creator god, Atum. Atum appeared as a self-generating deity bringing light to the chaos of Nun, the endless, murky waters of nothingness. Atum embodied both masculinity and femininity, and thus, could create life himself. After establishing light, Atum made Shu, the god of the air, and Tefnut, an obscure goddess with command over moisture.

Shu and Tefnut then gave birth to two children of their own, Geb and Nut. The god of earth and goddess of the sky fell in love with each other and produced equally powerful deities. Their children include Osiris – god of the dead; Isis – goddess of sovereignty; Seth – god of brute force; Nephthys – a funerary goddess. In some legends, Geb is also accredited to fathering Horus, though cults of Ancient Egyptian mythology differ on parentage.

The mighty Egyptian god of earth, along with the members of his immediate family, make up the Ennead, translated as “group of nine”. These nine all-powerful deities represent the animating forces that helped create both the natural and political order of Ancient Egypt.

Appearance

The Egyptian god of the earth is typically shown as a dark or green-skinned man with leaves on his skin and wearing a crown, either of the North or South. His skin tone likely represents the fertile soil of the Nile and vegetation growth, the colors of life for the ancients. In addition, Geb also appears with the Atef crown – a white-feathered crown associated with Osiris – or a goose, his chosen sacred animal. Sometimes his head is depicted as that of a snake to represent his affiliation with the creatures and their symbolization of earth.

A common image of Geb shows the god of earth splayed underneath his wife – Nut, the goddess of the sky – and his father – Shu, god of the air. Geb is seen reclining on one elbow while an arm rests on an upward, bent knee. The image represents the earth’s intimate relationship with both the sky and air. It also depicts Geb’s limbs as the valleys and hills of the land, which were often referred to as “The House of Geb” by Ancient Egyptians.

The oldest physical representation of Geb can be dated back to the Third Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (2670 BCE), during King Djoser’s rule. A fragmented relief sculpture found in Heliopolis depicts the Egyptian god as a mysterious anthropomorphic bearded entity. Later depictions ascribe Geb to the likeness of a ram, bull, or crocodile. The latter can be found in a vignette of the Book of the Dead, a collection of ancient spells ensuring the soul of the deceased safe passage to the afterlife.

Symbology

Geb’s main symbol was the goose. Legends say that the god was able to transform into the fowl, lending Geb the name “The Great Cackler”. The goose itself symbolizes the lush life found in parts of the Fertile Crescent. Some chief Egyptologists have even suggested that Geb’s association with the goose was due in part to his relationship with the divine creator goose. The controversial myth states the creator goose laid an egg from which the world, sun and earth sprouted.

Geb was also heavily associated with snakes. Reliefs and other Ancient Egyptian art depict Geb as part-man, part-snake to emphasize this relationship. One of the snake’s literal translations was “son of the earth”. Within the Book of the Dead, Geb was described as the father of snake creature Nehebkau.

Gods Similar to Geb

Most polytheistic ancient religions have deities assigned to watch over, embody, or symbolize the earth. Similarly to the popular Western idea of “Mother Earth”, Geb embodied earth and was responsible for geography, earthquakes, droughts, soil fertility, and anything else related to the earth’s composition. These responsibilities have often been broken up and split between several nature deities throughout later cults, religions, and mythologies. For instance, in Celtic mythology, Viridios was the god of vegetation, while Nantosuelta was the Gaulish goddess of the earth.

Other deities similar to Geb include Hinduism’s Dhara – god of the earth elemental; Emesh – the Sumerian god of vegetation and woods; Houtu – ancient Chinese deity of deep earth and soil; and Veles – the major Slavic god of earth, waters, and forests.

Geb is also sometimes identified with the Greek god Kronos.

Geb

Active Site

Active Site Definition

Enzymes are proteins which drastically increase the speed of chemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. Enzymes do this by interacting with the chemical reactants – called substrates – in ways that make them more likely to react.

Enzymes catalyze countless chemical reactions, including the stringing together of nucleotides and amino acids into DNA and proteins, the breakdown of sugar and fat into energy, and the breakdown of toxins in the liver. Without enzymes, life as we know it could not exist.

The enzyme’s active site is the site at which the enzyme binds to the substrates and increases their chances of reacting.

Types of Active Site

Because enzymes, like all proteins, are made of amino acids, they can create active sites with a wide variety of properties that can bind specifically to different substrates. Properties of amino acids which enzymes can use to bind to substrates include:

• Size and shape of active site – Can be created specifically to fit around a substrate.


• Polarity or non-polarity – Polar molecules are attracted to other polar molecules, while non-polar molecules prefer other non-polar molecules. In this way, parts of the active site can attract or repel different parts of the substrate to create a better fit.


• Positive or negative charge – When it comes to ions, opposites really do attract! Positive charges are attracted to negative charges, and vice versa.
  
  Similar charges – two positive charges, for example – will actively repel each other instead of attracting.
  
  This is another way that enzyme active sites can attract certain parts of substrates, while repelling others to create the right fit.


• Hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity. Just like with polarity, in this case “like attracts like.” Hydrophobic amino acids attract other hydrophobic molecules, and hydrophilic amino acids attract hydrophilic substrates.


• Special properties of co-factors. Some vitamins and minerals are important because they are used as co-factors that help enzymes bind to their substrates.

Several B vitamins, for example, are used as co-factors by enzymes involved in producing energy. That’s why many energy “shots” and supplements contain a collection of B vitamins.

Theories about Active Sites

There are two theories about how exactly enzyme active sites bind to substrates. These are:

Lock-and-Key Model

The lock-and-key model of enzyme active sites postulates that enzyme active sites are perfectly shaped to receive substrates and “pop” them into their new forms.

Induced Fit Model

Induced Fit Enzyme Catalyst

A competing theory, the induced fit model, states that the active site and the substrate are not necessarily an ideal fit for each other in their resting states. Instead, as the substrate draws near to the enzyme, one or both undergo shape changes as a result of interacting with each other.

In this model, it is the continuing interaction of the binding site and the substrate that drive the substrate into its new formation. After the reaction has completed and new products are formed, the product and enzyme are no longer compatible and they separate.

Examples of Active Sites

Some examples of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes include:

Maltase and Starch

Maltase is an enzyme found in your saliva. It breaks down starches – long chains of sugar molecules that don’t taste sweet – into simpler, sweeter tasting sugars. The reaction catalyzed by maltase looks like:

Starch + Water → Sugars

You can see maltase in action if you chew on a saltine cracker for a few minutes. While the cracker did not initially taste sweet, after a few minutes, you will be able to taste the sugars that the maltase is creating from the starch!

Pepsin and Protein

Another enzyme that’s important to digestion is pepsin, which is found in your stomach. Pepsin catalyzes the reaction of proteins with stomach acid, allowing your body to break down protein from food into amino acids that you can use to build new proteins. That reaction looks like this:

Protein + Acid → Amino acids

DNA Polymerase

Another very important enzyme is DNA polymerase. It is DNA polymerase that allows your cells to multiply, by making copies of their DNA to give to daughter cells.

It does this by stringing together nucleic acids in the correct sequence – the opposite of what maltase and pepsin do when they take things apart. The reaction catalyzed by DNA polymerase looks like this:

DNA triphosphate molecule + DNA strand → Longer DNA strand + diphosphate molecule

Related Biology Terms

• Activation energy – The energy required to complete a chemical reaction.
  
  Enzymes work by moving the reaction’s substrates into the ideal position to react, lowering the reaction’s activation energy. This enables reactions to happen much more efficiently than they normally would, and is necessary for life as we know it to exist!


• Amino acid – The “building blocks” of proteins.
  
  The twenty amino acids used by life on Earth have side chains with different properties, allowing proteins with different shapes and properties to be formed.


• Protein – A protein is a structure made of one or more long chains of amino acids.
  
  The diverse diverse properties of amino acids allow proteins to serve diverse functions within cells, including serving as enzymes, the pulling force within muscle cells, receiving messages within the brain, and countless other functions.


• Latitude


• Temperature


• Elevation


• Soil composition


• Salinity (the concentration of salt in water)


• Radiation


• Pollution

Test Your Knowledge of Active Site

1. Enzymes need to be constantly replenished because they are used up in their reactions with substrates.
A. True
B. False

Answer to Question #1

False. Enzymes are not changed by the reactions they catalyze. That’s why they are called “catalysts” instead of “reactants.”

Catalysts only lower the activation energy of a reaction by their presence.

Reactants – like water and starch, in the case of maltase – participate in the chemical reaction and are used up in the process.

2. Without enzymes, our cells would not be able to digest food, break down toxins, or create new DNA.
A. True
B. False

Answer to Question #2

True. Enzymes are required for all of these reactions, and many more, to happen at a rate that sustains life!

3. Enzymes and substrates are perfectly shaped to fit together, like a lock and key.
A. True
B. False

Answer to Question #3

Both. This is a trick question! Scientists aren’t sure whether enzymes and substrates are perfectly shaped to fit together, or whether the shape of the enzyme changes to fit the substrate as they

Active Site

Aswang

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The terrifying Aswang is the most feared creature of Philippine folklore—and with good reason. Stalking its prey in the small, rural towns of the Philippines, the Aswang nocturnally hunts for a meal of human flesh and blood.

What is an Aswang?

The Aswang (æ·swang) is a flesh-eating, shapeshifting monster. During the day, they appear as regular townspeople, though they may be observed by others to have reclusive habits or magical abilities. At night, they shift into eerie predatory forms and go hunting for human prey, preferring to feast on children and pregnant women above all else.

Characteristics

Physical Description

Varying horrible descriptions have been given of the this monster’s appearance, but some recurrent traits stand out among all the different descriptions. Usually, they are women during the day. At night, however, they may appear as birds, pigs, or dogs.

No matter which animal form it takes, an Aswang will differ from a regular animal in various disturbing ways. Most have long, proboscis-like tongues, and are frequently described as walking with their feet backward. They have also been depicted as being so thin that they can hide behind bamboo posts.

Special Abilities

The Aswang’s most fearsome ability is its knack for blending in with its victims. During the day, they look and act just like regular people. Although they are generally shy and somewhat reclusive, they can have jobs, friends, and even families.

During the night, Aswangs shift into a form that is better suited to hunting. Different regional versions are said to take different forms. The tik-tik and wak-wak become large birds, while the zegben (sometimes described merely as a companion of the Aswang) takes on the form of a Tasmanian devil. They have also been reported shifting into pigs and dogs.

In addition to shapeshifting, Aswangs also have the ability to transform the appearance of other objects. It’s common for these flesh-eaters to transform plant material into doppelgangers of victims, in order to hide the evidence of their feeding habits from locals. These doppelgangers might replace corpses, which the monsters often consume, or they might replace living people. If the doppelganger replaces a living person, it will return to the person’s home, get sick, and quickly die.

Another tactic Aswangs use to disguise themselves is to use sinister vocal tricks. As they gets closer to their victim, their calls get quieter and quieter, so the victim is tricked into thinking the predator is actually getting further away.

The Aswang’s hunting prowess is almost as frightening as its ability to hide itself in plain sight. They like to dine on corpses, fetuses, and small children, and They often appear at funeral wakes or at the bedside of pregnant women to eat, using theit proboscis like tongues to suck blood from their victims or suck a fetus from a pregnant woman’s womb. They also have superhuman strength during the nighttime.

A person transforms into an Aswang by tying a fertilized chicken egg to his or her stomach. After some time, the chick passes from the egg into the stomach. Once this has happened, the remaining eggshell is buried in a bamboo tube, along with coconut oil and chicken dung. The person now has the powers of an Aswang.

A dying Aswang can also pass its powers along to someone else if it wishes. The Aswang holds its mouth close to a chosen person, and the chick inside the monster’s stomach hops into the mouth of the chosen one.

Weaknesses

The first step towards ridding a town of an Aswang is identifying the monster. There are several ways in which you can do this. They generally have bloodshot eyes, since they have been awake hunting all night. In addition, it is said that if you look directly into their eyes, your reflection will appear upside-down. The most common method of detecting Aswangs, however, involves using albularyos oil, a special oil made of coconuts and holy plants. This oil is said to boil whenever an Aswang is near.

Aswangs are repelled by garlic and religious artifacts and are at their weakest during the day, when they are in human form. They can be killed by decapitation or by being struck with a whip made from a sting ray’s tail.

Related Creatures

The Aswang has a lot in common with western vampires, but there is no evidence to show that either creature inspired the creation of the other. Stories of the Aswang and of vampires probably evolved separately.

Other monsters in Philippine folklore are more likely to be related.

Both the wak-wak version of the Aswang and the manananggals, a different monster, leave behind half of their human torso when they transform into a predatory form during the night.

Aswangs also have connections to witchcraft in the Philippines. and They are generally described as women, and they are sometimes said to have magical powers during the day. While they are generally to be feared, they are sometimes said to provide healing potions or to cast spells for local people.

Cultural Representation

Origin

The Aswang was born out of Philippine folklore, with stories of this terrifying creature dating back to at least the 16th century, when Spanish explorers created the first written record of monster. The explorers noted that of all the monsters in their folklore, the Aswang was the most feared by native people.

The word Aswang comes from the Sanskrit word “asura,” which means demon. The monster is also sometimes called the tik-tik or the wak-wak. These names come from the sinister sounds the monster is said to make while hunting.

Famous Myths

Despite the fact that belief in this monstrous creature has spread throughout the Philippines, there aren’t many well-known individual stories about the Aswang.. Instead, the monster’s fame is built on a collection of firsthand encounters, and almost everyone who claims to have had an encounter has a slightly different report.

The creature’s mythology was formalized in the 1960s, when Maximo Ramos included a description of the terrifying flesh-eater in a book titled Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology.

Visual Arts

Drawings of the Aswang have populated Philippine folk art for centuries. Since its introduction to western culture, the monster has also begun to make appearances in western art.

The Aswang Inquiry, an illustrated book by Gilda Cordero-Fernando, contains many paintings of the monster. Stage plays have also brought Aswang mythology into the spotlight, with Luna: an Aswang Romance and Tiktik: the Aswang Chronicles both showcasing the monster.

Most recently, a documentary called The Aswang Phenomenon explored the evolution of the mythology and the culture behind the myths.

Explanations of the Myth

As fantastic as stories of the Aswang might seem, they may actually have been inspired by real life events.

One theory is that native wildlife was the inspiration for the legends. The “tik tik” and “wak wak” hunting calls the Aswang is said to make are probably the calls of nocturnal birds. Bats, Tasmanian devils, and kagwang, an endangered species of flying lemur, have all been killed because they have been suspected of being Aswang in a transformed state.

Another possible explanation is the presence of a rare genetic disease called XDP, which almost exclusively affects Filipino men. XDP causes patients to have Parkinsonian and dystonic symptoms; the patient is afflicted with uncontrollable muscle spasms, contortions, and tremors. Images of the Aswang during transformation are strikingly similar to photographs of a patient experiencing XDP symptoms. The highest concentration of XDP occurrences is in the Capiz region, which is rumored to be the original home of the Aswang.

Finally, the legend may be used to explain away horrendous, unsolved crimes in the Philippines. When a person disappears or is brutally murdered, it may be easier for local people to attribute the crime to a demon rather than to one of their fellow humans. Tabloids often attribute crimes to Aswangs, which adds fuel to the mythology.

Aswang

Rigor Mortis

If there’s one thing that everyone has in common, it’s the unavoidable occurrence of death. We can take steps to prevent it but eventually we all have to take our last breath. The body is remarkable during life but you may not realize just how many amazing things it continues to do even after our hearts stop beating. Take a look at these rigor mortis facts to learn how the body changes after death.

Rigor Mortis Definition

Once a person has passed on, the muscles in their body instantly become soft and flaccid. The body then begins to go through the stages of death, with the third stage being rigor mortis. In this state, the muscles become firm and rigid. It begins in the smallest muscles, like those found in the face, hands and feet, and then continues to the larger limb muscles. If the muscles are stretched for whatever reason, rigor mortis is “broken” and the body will move on to the next stages.

Causes of Rigor Mortis

Chemical Changes

Rigor mortis occurs because of a chemical change in muscles after death. When a person is alive, their muscles contract to complete physical actions, like walking and talking. These contractions are the result of an exchange of chemicals. When resting, muscles pump out calcium ions. These ions interact with actin and myosin filaments which results in a muscle contraction. The muscle stays contracted until adenosine triphosphate binds to the myosin and relaxation occurs.

All of this happens because of oxygen. So when the body is no longer receiving oxygen, the chemical reactions and exchanges don’t occur. Respiration can continue anaerobically immediately following death briefly but without a continued source of oxygen, muscles cannot produce adenosine triphosphate. The myosin and actin filaments remain contracted and the muscles remain tense.

Temperature

Temperature isn’t necessarily a cause of rigor mortis but more of a factor. A body that has expired in a warmer climate will experience rigor mortis at a faster rate than one in a colder climate. Bodies that have been pulled from freezing water, even if they have been submerged for several days, have normally not gone through the state of rigor mortis. It typically does begin though once the body begins to thaw. In most typical cases of death, rigor mortis begins a few hours after death and can last anywhere from one to four days.

Stages of Rigor Mortis

There are six stages of rigor mortis in humans. These different stages can be used to assist in determining the exact time of death when needed.

1. Absent

In this stage, the body is still receiving small bits of oxygen anaerobically. The muscles are still soft.

2. Minimal

Rigor mortis has just begun. The face muscles are typically the first to experience the change.

3. Moderate

More muscles are beginning to stiffen and it has become obvious that the body is in the stage of rigor mortis.

4. Advanced

The majority of the muscles in the body are in rigor mortis.

5. Complete

All of the muscles in the body are hard and rigid.

6. Passed

Rigor mortis has ended and the body can now move into the next stage of death.

Rigor Mortis Factors

Like temperature, there are several factors that can either speed up or delay rigor mortis. In some cases, it doesn’t occur. This phenomenon is most common in frail or weak people, specifically children, who do not have the necessary muscle mass to experience complete rigor mortis of the body. If the muscles are manually stretched or contracted, rigor mortis might be avoidable in certain situations.

Speed Up Rigor Mortis

Hot temperatures will speed up the rate of rigor mortis, along with exercise immediately before death, electrocution, an above average body temperature due to fever and if drugs that increase body temperature are in the body’s system.

Delay Rigor Mortis

Cold temperatures can slow down it, including death by hypothermia. Pneumonia, hemorrhages and nervous diseases can also slow down the onset of rigor mortis in the deceased.

Rigor Mortis Applications

It can be used to set standards in food packaging and in the medical field.

Meat Industry

Producing meat for human consumption requires precise science and accurate technology. Animals also experience rigor mortis after death. Animal meat cannot be immediately chilled after being slaughtered. If it is, a phenomenon called cold shortening can occur. This is where the muscles shrink to a third of their original length because of the release of stored calcium ions at an alarming rate. To prevent this, electrical stimulation is used. This process keeps the muscles contracting, depleting adenosine triphosphate and preventing cold shortening. Most types of meat, especially beef, is considered more tender if processed and packaged for consumption after rigor mortis.

Forensics

If you’ve ever watched a crime show, you know that the stage of rigor mortis is often a playing factor in determining an approximate time of death. In the case of homicide, rigor mortis can also help deliver investigators some clues as to how and where the murder was committed.

A dead body will hold its position once rigor mortis has set in. Therefore, a body moved after death might appear awkward. For example, an arm or leg might be sticking up when a body is flat, leading investigators to believe that the body was not left in the position it was in when the homicide occurred.

Rigor mortis also helps determine how long a body has been deceased. Investigators refer to the six stages of rigor mortis. Though the previously listed factors need to be taken into consideration as they can speed up or slow down the onset of rigor mortis, the following observations can estimate death within a matter of hours. A warm but not stiff body has not been dead for more than three hours. A warm but stiff body has been dead from three to eight hours. A cold and stiff body has been dead for anywhere between eight and 36 hours while a cold but not stiff body has been dead for more than 36 hours.

Rigor Mortis

Occam’s Razor

Have you heard of Occam’s Razor? No, it’s not for shaving. Even if you haven’t heard of the principle, you’ve probably used it plenty of times in your life. Check out these Occam Razor facts and learn how it can help you simplify your life and even avoid stress.

What is Occam’s Razor?

Occam’s razor is a philosophical principle that states, “Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily.” In simpler terms, the principle says that the simplest explanation is most likely the correct one.

There are many adopted forms of Occam’s Razor, including the following phrase common in the scientific realm that says, “When you have two competing theories that make exactly the same predictions, the simpler one is the better.”

Isaac Newton even had his own version of Occam’s Razor. Newton stated, “We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.”

Examples of Occam’s Razor

There is a plethora of examples that can be used to further explain the principle. Here are a few.

Example #1

You’re sitting in your living room and hear a loud noise coming from above. Should you assume that a.) A low-flying airplane is flying overhead or b.) A spaceship is right above your roof and about to abduct you. While both can be considered possible conclusions, “a” is a more likely explanation.

Example #2

You get a notice saying that you over drafted your bank account. Should you assume that a.) Your account was hacked and someone stole your money in an attempt to teach you a lesson about thriftiness or b.) You miscalculated your payments and spent more than you had. Bank account hacking is a possibility these days but more than likely the error was on your part, making “b” the best answer.

Example #3

Your doorbell rings and it’s the local mail service with a package. Should you assume that a.) Your mom must have sent you a gift because your birthday is next week or b.) An ex-lover has finally decided to seek revenge and sent a dangerous package to your doorstep. No matter how bad your past relationships ended, “a” is the more likely answer between the two.

Can you see how many of us use the principle in our everyday lives, even without realizing it?

Origins of Occam’s Razor

The origins of Occam’s Razor are a bit hazy. While William of Ockham is credited with the principle, he wasn’t exactly the first to put the idea in writing or to speak of it. Instead, he is more credited with making the principle well known.

It is believed that the origins of Occam’s Razor can be traced back to philosophers like John Duns Scotus, Robert Grosseteste and even Aristotle. The closest phrase to Occam’s Razor’s by Aristotle is, “We may assume the superiority ceteris paribus (other things being equal) of the demonstration which derived from fewer postulates or hypotheses.”

One of the more surprising Occam’s Razor facts is that the phrase has never been found in any of William of Ockham’s writings. Regardless, he has been forever linked to this philosophy which has long been a common thread between ancient and current philosophers.

Uses of Occam’s Razor

Occam’s Razor can be used plenty of ways by children, adults and professionals.

Every Day Uses

You can use Occam’s Razor from the moment you wake up all the way until you go to sleep. From trying to figure out where your keys are to trying to determine why there’s more traffic than usual or wondering why your favorite television program isn’t on at night, you can use the theory to help answer the countless questions that run through your head throughout the day.

Occam’s Razor can also eliminate stress in your life. When you spend too much time wondering and worrying about certain situations, you add unnecessary strain to your day. By focusing on the most probable answer, you can stop worrying about things that will most likely never come to be. It can be speculated that utilizing Occam’s Razor can have a positive effect on your overall quality of life and health.

Specialized Uses

Many specialized industries use Occam’s Razor to complete their work. The most obvious and beneficial is the medical industry. Doctors and nurses use Occam’s Razor to help diagnose patients. For example, if a patient presents themselves with symptoms that include a fever and chills, Occam’s Razor would suggest that the patient has an infection that the body is trying to fight off. It is less likely that the patient has a rare illness only found in a country halfway across the world. Using Occam’s Razor in the medical field helps doctors save time and heal patients more efficiently and effectively.

Problems with Occam’s Razor

Occam’s Razor shouldn’t be mistaken for a perfect philosophy. There are times when relying on it can lead to less than ideal results. While in the majority of situations and the majority of the time, the simplest answer is the right answer. But when the less than likely answer is actually the right one, issues can arise. For example, a doctor who misdiagnoses a patient because they didn’t consider any not so common illnesses can put the life of their patient in jeopardy. This is why it’s important to use Occam’s Razor with an open mind. While it can help you solve an issue or come to a conclusion that is more than likely correct, you should always remember that there are other possibilities.

If you find yourself resorting to crazy solutions or reasoning for life’s problems, consider adapting the philosophy of Occam’s Razor. You’re sure to find that the majority of situations are not nearly as dire as your brain is making them out to be.

Occam’s Razor

Dolphin Facts

Fast FactsEssential FactsInteresting Facts

1. Order: Cetacea


2. Suborder: Odontoceti


3. Family: Delphinidae


4. Habitat: Tropical Saltwater, Freshwater


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   Diet: Carnivorous


6. Weight: 50-8,000 pounds


7. Size: 4-26 feet


8. Speed: 20-35 MPH


9. Lifespan: 20 Years on Average


10. Types: Over 30

1. 1. Appearance: Dolphins Range in Appearance, Size and Weight


2. 2. Habitat: Dolphins Live All Over the World


3. 3. Reproduction: Twin Dolphins are Rare


4. 4. Behavior: Dolphins Hang Out in Groups


5. 5. Diet: Dolphins Work Together to Eat


6. 6. Threats: Do Your Part to Keep Dolphins Safe


7. 7. Lifespan: Dolphins Can Live Full Lives But Have to Avoid Disease


8. 8. Biology: Dolphins Work Hard to Breathe


9. 9. Intelligence: Dolphins Might Be the Smartest Mammal Other Than Humans


10. 10. Behavior: Dolphins are Unbelievably Compassionate

11. Dolphins See with Their Clicks


12. Swimming with Dolphins Isn’t As Much Fun as You Think


13. Dolphins Love the Big Screen


14. Dolphins Don’t Interrupt


15. Dolphin Activists are Always Busy


16. Dolphins Can Drown

Dolphins Range in Appearance, Size and Weight

Let’s begin our interesting list of dolphin facts by describing the physical appearance of these majestic animals. Dolphins have a tight and streamlined physique that allows them to swim incredibly fast. There are over 30 species and most possess the well-known gray skin tone but there are a few species that have black stripes, spots or a unique pattern. The killer whale is actually a type of dolphin, which looks much different than the more common bottlenose dolphin. A unique feature of dolphins is that they have no hair, setting them apart from most other mammals. They are still considered mammals though because they breathe air, are warm blooded and give birth to live young.

Dolphins Live All Over the World

Most types of dolphins do best in temperate and tropical salt water. They can be found all over the world in just about every major body of water. There are even dolphins that live in fresh water. The majority of dolphins can be found in warm and shallow water. Great places to spot dolphins include harbors, bays and lagoons. Some of the larger species of dolphins can be found in colder regions, like the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Dolphins are broken down into two categories. Coastal dolphins live in warmer waters while offshore dolphins can thrive in cooler environments.

Twin Dolphins are Rare

Dolphins do not have a traditional mating season. While there is typically a peak in the spring and fall, dolphins mate all year and are believed to be the only other mammal on the planet besides humans who mate for pleasure, but this is up for debate. The gestation period lasts anywhere from 9-17 months, depending on the species. When the time comes to give birth, the female will separate herself from her group, usually heading towards the surface of the water. Twins are rare. Usually only one calf is born and they will stay with their mother for the next three to eight years.

Dolphins Hang Out in Groups

One of the less surprising dolphin facts is that the animals are incredibly playful. Many species follow ships or tourist boats, leaping out of the water or rising vertically out of the water to check our what’s going on above the surface. Pods, or groups of dolphins, are often able to synchronize their movements, putting on quite a show for anyone watching. It is thought that dolphins swim next to ships in order to conserve energy. If you ever see one dolphin, keep looking. Dolphins live in social groups of at least five, sometimes up to a few hundred, so you’re sure to see a show.

Dolphins Work Together to Eat

According to dolphin facts, dolphins are omnivores with a diet that consists of a wide variety of foods. Their exact diet depends on their geographic location. Coastal dolphins eat more fish and bottom-dwelling invertebrates while offshore dolphins eat fish and squid. An interesting dolphin fact is that some offshore dolphins have been found with deep-sea fish in their stomachs, which suggests that these dolphins might be able to dive to more than 1,600 feet. Most dolphins work together while hunting or catching fish. They might encircle a large group of fish or herd them against sand bars or shorelines to trap them.

Do Your Part to Keep Dolphins Safe

Some dolphin species are considered endangered. While the ocean is full of danger, the most dangerous and overwhelming threat to dolphins is the human race. Statistics suggest that more and more dolphins are being executed by dynamite fishing or being caught in fishing nets. There is also the possibility of boat collisions and the dangerous side effects of marine pollution. Even noise pollution is dangerous to dolphins. The sounds of ship engines, oil drilling and navigational sonars underwater can frighten or even injure a dolphin. Some research has put the percentage of dolphin deaths directly related to man-related causes as high as 95%.

Dolphins Can Live Full Lives But Have to Avoid Disease

The most familiar type of dolphin, the bottlenose, lives about 20 years on average. Some studies have shown that dolphins can live into their 40s and 50s. There have been female dolphins documented to living past 60. This is incredibly rare though with only 1% to 2% of dolphins living to that age. A variety of diseases and parasites can shorten the life of a dolphin though, including viral, bacterial and fungal infections. They are also not immune to stomach ulcers, skin diseases, heart disease and respiratory disorders. Dolphins do have a few natural predators, including tiger sharks, dusky sharks and great white sharks.

Dolphins Work Hard to Breathe

It might surprise you to learn that dolphins do not breathe underwater. Because they are mammals, they breathe air into their lungs, just as humans do. Dolphins breath through a nostril located on the top of their heads, referred to as a blowhole. The location of the blowhole allows dolphins to breath by just exposing the top of their heads. Dolphins are able to hold their breath but breathe four to five times per minute, on average. Because dolphins can only breathe through their blowhole, their mouths are free to catch prey, which prevents water from getting into their lungs.

Dolphins Might Be the Smartest Mammal Other Than Humans

New dolphin facts say that scientists believe that dolphins are almost as intelligent as humans in certain ways. Their brains are actually larger than a human’s and the cortex has the same complicated folds found with human intelligence. It was thought for years that chimps were the smartest mammal but recent studies suggest that the dolphin might be. Bottlenose dolphins were able to recognize themselves in a mirror and even used it to check out different parts of their bodies in one study. Other studies show that dolphins have distinct personalities and can even think about the future.

Dolphins are Unbelievably Compassionate

Besides being smart, dolphins are incredibly compassionate. There have been many documented cases of dolphins rescuing humans. Korean scientists documented a case of an entire group of dolphins working together to save another dolphin who was dying. The dolphin was injured with red marks on its stomach. The other dolphins were helping to keep the dolphin afloat. The injured dolphin couldn’t be saved and even after it has passed, the other dolphins still kept it afloat and almost seemed to be blowing bubbles at it to start resuscitation. Other dolphins rubbed and touched the dolphin’s head and appeared distressed.

Dolphins See with Their Clicks

Echolocation is often associated with bats but dolphins also rely on it to hunt and navigate. Echolocation works by listening for echoes after bouncing high-pitched sounds off of objects. These echoes are picked up by the lower jaws and foreheads of dolphins, which have cavities filled with fatty tissues. They are then directed to the ears and to the brain where they are interpreted. This essentially allows dolphins to see with sound. By emitting high-frequency clicks, dolphins are able to determine the shape, speed, size, distance and direction of travel regarding their surrounding objects. This all helps when navigating deep and murky waters. Echolocation is one of the best defenses that dolphins have in the open water.

Swimming with Dolphins Isn’t As Much Fun as You Think

One of the most popular tourist attractions in tropical environments is swimming with dolphins. Swim-with-the-dolphin (SWTD) programs are easy to find and allow you to either swim with a dolphin or take a picture in the water with one. In recent years, many trainers have stepped forth and expressed their concerns with SWTD programs, stating that dolphins do not belong in captivity. There have been reports of excessive chlorine levels causing blindness in the animals while other suffer from psychosis, a behavior that presents itself when marine animals are held in pens too small for their needs.

Dolphins Love the Big Screen

Even Hollywood loves dolphins. In 1964, the television series Flipper premiered and was well received by the public. It followed Flipper, a bottlenose dolphin, and his companion Porter Ricks. Flipper helped to protect the park around his lagoon, as well as its wild inhabitants. The series ran for three seasons. Flipper was portrayed by a total of five different dolphins. There were several notable guest stars on the series, including Burt Reynolds and Martin Sheen. Flipper was nominated for two TV Land awards. It was also a spark for controversy as animal activists disagreed with keeping dolphins in captivity.

Dolphins Don’t Interrupt

The different sounds made by dolphins have been well documented. Their communication patterns feature whistles, clicks and body postures. But a recent recording has sparked new interest in scientists. Two Black Sea bottlenose dolphins seemed to have been exchanging sounds in a way that resembled a conversation between two people in a recent recording. They took turns producing sounds and did not interrupt each other. While the scientists who conducted the recording believe that the dolphins were speaking in sentences, many others call their bluff. Either way, the advanced communication skills of dolphins cannot be ignored compared to other animals.

Dolphin Activists are Always Busy

Marine animals in captivity have attracted quite a bit of attention from dolphin activists and they have lot to fight against. Between illegal killings in the ocean, dolphin shows, unsafe captivity and aquatic pollution, activists constantly have their hands full trying to raise awareness. But the world might be starting to listen. The killer whale, a species of dolphin, is being phased out from shows and captivity around the United States. By leaving these animals in their natural habitat, they are allowed to express themselves fully and be just as nature intended.

Dolphins Can Drown

Because dolphins breathe by coming to the surface, it is impossible for them to sleep deep in the ocean and not drown. They sleep in two different ways. First, they can rest quietly in the water, vertically or horizontally. They can also sleep while swimming slowly next to another dolphin. Certain dolphins can also go into a deeper form of sleep at night called logging. Baby dolphins rest, eat and sleep while their mother swims. Her slipstream actually tows the baby along. A mother dolphin cannot stop swimming the first few weeks of her calf’s life because the baby will sink.

Dolphin Facts – Facts about Dolphin Summary

Dolphin facts tell all about these fascinating animals, including their appearance, their habitats, diet, hunting techniques and how they reproduce. Learn about dolphins in pop culture and how activists are trying to change the future of these majestic mammals.

Dolphin Facts