Flagellum

Flagellum Definition

A flagellum is a microscopic hair-like organelle used by cells and microorganisms for movement. The word flagellum in Latin means whip, just like the whipping motion flagella (plural) often use for locomotion. Specialized flagella in some organisms are also used as sensory organelles that can detect changes in temperature and pH.

Function of Flagellum

Flagella are filamentous protein structures found in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, though they are most commonly found in bacteria. They are typically used to propel a cell through liquid (i.e. bacteria and sperm). However, flagella have many other specialized functions. Some eukaryotic cells use flagellum to increase reproduction rates. Other eukaryotic and bacterial flagella are used to sense changes in the environment, such as temperature or pH disturbances. Recent work with the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has shown that flagellum may also be used as a secretory organelle, but this discovery needs more time to be fully understood.

Examples of Flagellum

A flagellum can be comprised of different structures depending on the organism, especially when flagellum from eukaryotes and bacteria are compared. Since eukaryotes are usually complex organisms, the attached flagellum is more complex as well. The flagellum is made up of microtubules composed from a protein called tubulin. Nine microtubule pairs surround another two pairs of microtubules in the center to form the core of the flagellum; this is known as the nine-plus-two arrangement. The whole nine-plus-two structure is anchored in a basal body within the organism. These bundled microtubules use ATP to bend back and forth in a whip-like motion together.

Although few multicellular eukaryotes have true flagellum, almost half the human population produces cells with them in the form of sperm. This is the only cell in the human body with flagellum, and for good reason. In order to move through the vaginal tract to meet the egg, sperm must be able to swim, or move, very long distances (in comparison of cell to body size). Without the flagellum, there would be very little chance of fertilization or population stability.

On the other hand, bacterial flagella are structured and function completely differently than the eukaryotic counterparts. These flagella are made of a protein called flagellin. ATP isn’t needed because bacterial flagellum can use the energy of the proton-motive force. This means the energy is derived from ion gradients – usually hydrogen or sodium – which lie across cell membranes. These flagella are helix shaped and rotate quickly like a windmill to move the organism instead of whipping back and forth. The bacteria Escherichia coli uses this windmill-like locomotion to propel up the urethra to cause urinary tract infections. Salmonella enterica, a harmful pathogen, uses several windmill-like flagella to infect human hosts.

Comparison of flagellum motion in bacterial (prokaryotic) and eukaryotic organisms:

Types of Flagellum

The flagellar structure consists of three different parts: rings embedded in the basal body, a hook near the surface of the organism to keep it in place, and the flagellar protein filaments. Every flagellum has these three things in common, regardless of organism. However, there are four distinct types of bacterial flagellum based on location:

Flagella

A. Monotrichous: A single flagellum at one end of the organism or the other.

B. Lophotrichous: Several flagellum on one end of the organism or the other.

C. Amphitrichous: A single flagellum on both ends of the organism.

D. Peritrichous: Several flagellum attached all over the organism.

Monotrichous, amphitrichous, and lophotrichous flagellum are considered polar flagellum because the flagellum is strictly located on the ends of the organism. These flagella can rotate both clockwise and counterclockwise. A clockwise movement propels the organism (or cell) forward, while a counterclockwise movement pulls the organism backwards.

Peritrichous flagella are not considered polar because they are located all over the organism. When these flagella rotate in a counterclockwise movement, they form a bundle that propels the organism in one direction. If a few of the flagellum break away and begin rotating clockwise, the organism then begins a tumbling motion. During this time, the organism cannot move in any real direction.

If any flagellum stops rotating—regardless of polarity—the organism will change direction. This is caused by Brownian motion (constant movement of liquid particles) and fluid currents catching up with the organism and spinning it around. Some organisms that cannot change direction on their own rely on Brownian motion and fluid currents to do it for them.

Related Biology Terms

• ATP – Adenosine triphosphate, a small molecule used in cells as a coenzyme that transfers energy.


• Microtubules – A microscopic tubular structure present in the cytoplasm of cells that helps form the cytoskeleton.


• Basal body – An organelle that forms the very base of a flagellum; it is similar to a centriole in structure.


• Brownian motion – The random movement of particles in a fluid (liquid or gas), caused by bumping into other molecules within the same fluid.

Quiz

1. What is the primary function of flagellum?
A. Energy production
B. Communication
C. Locomotion
D. Heat production

Answer to Question #1

C is correct. Although flagellum can do many things, the primary function is to propel a cell or organism.

2. What gives bacterial flagellum energy?
A. ATP
B. Ion gradients
C. Basal bodies
D. Flagellin

Answer to Question #2

B is correct. Unlike eukaryotic flagellum, bacterial flagellum use energy from ion gradients (usually hydrogen or sodium) to fuel movement.

3. Which of the following is not considered a polar bacterial flagellum?
A. Monotrichous
B. Amphitrichous
C. Lophotrichous
D. Peritrichous

Answer to Question #3

D is correct. Peritrichous flagellum are not considered polar because they are located on every part of the organism instead of just the ends.

Flagellum

Gabriel

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: GAY-bree-el


• Origin: Old Testament


• Role: Archangel


• Symbol: White Lily

Who Is Gabriel?

Gabriel is an angel who is known as a messenger. He delivers messages to people from God. He is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments, along with several other religious texts.

Purpose

Gabriel’s main purpose is to deliver messages. In the Catholic religion, he is known as the patron saint of messengers, telecommunication workers, and postal workers. September 29 is his feast day, celebrated with Michael and Raphael as well.

He is said to help people remain open and honest and always seek the truth, in themselves and others. He helps guide through intuition. He also protects children.

One of Gabriel’s possible future purposes is to blow the trumpet to indicate Jesus’ return to Earth. But there is speculation with this fact, as several people have been designated with this task. Different Bible passages point to different people.

Origins

Depending on the religious text being viewed, Gabriel is one of several other archangels. According to Jewish tradition, there are seven total archangels, with Gabriel being the second in rank. In the Bible, only Michael and Gabriel are mentioned out of the seven listed in Jewish text. But only Michael is directly referred to as an archangel.

Legends and Stories

There are not many stories of Gabriel found in religious text. But of the ones we do have, they give us a clear understanding of why Gabriel is known as a messenger.

Gabriel and David

In the Book of David, we find Daniel coming to terms that the 70-year period of Israel’s captivity is coming to an end. The Jews will be able to return to their own land with time. Daniel prays with hope for himself and his people. His prayer is answered, but not as expected. God sends Gabriel to Daniel, who helps him interpret and understand his visions. With this new understanding, Daniel is able to see that the future is bright. God wanted Daniel to understand that the future of Israel was part of God’s promise to restore the Jews. He wanted Daniel to understand that Israel’s return was not a sign of the coming of the kingdom but a step towards rebuilding the temple and fulfilling God’s plan. Gabriel appears to Daniel a total of three times to help him with visions.

Gabriel and the Virgin Mary

God sent Gabriel to Nazareth, a town in Galilee. He was to find a virgin named Mary, who was pledged to marry a man by the name of Joseph, a descendant of David. Gabriel found Mary and told her that she was highly favored by the Lord.

Mary was at first concerned with Gabriel’s wording. She didn’t know if the angel had come to give her good or bad news. Gabriel consoled Mary, telling her not to worry. Again, he told her how special she was in the eyes of God and that she would give birth to a son. She was to name the baby Jesus. The baby was going to be the Son of God.

Again, Mary was confused. She asked Gabriel how this was possible. She wasn’t pregnant and she was a virgin, saving herself for her upcoming marriage to Joseph. Gabriel again addressed her concerns, telling her that the Holy Spirit would come upon her and God would overshadow her. Gabriel told Mary that nothing was impossible with God.

Mary proclaimed herself t to be a servant of the Lord and agreed to Gabriel’s message. Gabriel then left. Mary did become pregnant and gave birth to Jesus in the Christmas story known by so many.

Family

Angels do not have families in the traditional sense. But they are all considered to be children of God.

Appearance

In artistic representations, Gabriel is often shown clothed in white or blue. He is often carrying a white lily. Other times, he’s holding a trumpet, shining lantern, branch from Paradise, or a scroll. He is often shown in a scene depicting the Annunciation.

Symbology

The most common symbol associated with Gabriel is the white lily. The flower stands for purity and truth. Another symbol of the archangel is a bird quill and ink. This symbolizes his main purpose of serving as a messenger for God.

Gabriel

Hermaphroditus

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: Herm-aff-row-die-tee


• Origin: Greek


• Role: God


• Parents: Hermes and Aphrodite


• Other Name: Hermaphroditos

Who Is Hermaphroditus?

In Greek mythology, Hermaphroditus was the son of Hermes and Aphrodite. He was born a handsome boy and raised by a nymph on Mount Ida. However, his future and purpose was to be quite unique. Just as his parent’s, his purpose would center around sexuality.

Purpose

Hermaphroditus was a minor deity. He was the god of hermaphrodites and effeminates. He served as a guiding presence and symbolized the beauty of union.

It is said that Hermaphroditus would appear at times to men but other sources lead us to believe that he was considered to be a monstrosity and rarely entered the world. There are not many references of Hermaphroditus after his main myth, which suggests the second assumption is more accurate.

Origins

The story of Hermaphroditus can be found in both Roman and Greek mythology. In Greek mythology, his name is a compound of his parents’ names, Hermes and Aphrodite.

Legends and Stories

There is one main myth of Hermaphroditus, which tells of how he was forever bonded with another creature.

The Myth of Hermaphroditus

Hermaphroditus was born to Hermes and Aphrodite but he was not raised by his parents. Instead, he resided at Mount Ida, a sacred mountain in present day Turkey, where he was nursed by nymphs. He was incredibly handsome and knew that he could conquer the world with just his looks. So at the young age of fifteen, he began to travel the world around him. He visited Lycia and Caria.

While in Caria, he explored a patch of woods near Halicarnassus. He came across a pool and discovered a nymph named Salmacis. Salmacis was immediately overtaken with lust for the boy because of his good looks. She tried to seduce Hermaphroditus but he rejected her advances.

When Hermaphroditus thought Salmacis had left, he undressed and entered the pool to bathe. But Salmacis had been hiding behind a tree. She suddenly jumped out and quickly entered the pool. She wrapped her body tightly around the boy while kissing him. Hermaphroditus struggled to get away but was unable to.

Salmacis called out to the gods and asked that they make it so the two could never part. The gods granted her wish but in a way that Salmacis might not have even expected. Their bodies were blended together, becoming one being of both sexes, with female breasts, legs, and facial features combined with the genitalia of a man.

Hermaphroditus was grief stricken. His good looks were gone and he now faced stigma and rejection from the world. As a way to lessen his pain, he asked his parents to curse the pool so that anyone who entered would be transformed just as he was. They agreed, and Hermaphroditus became the god of hermaphrodites and effeminates.

Family

Hermaphroditus was the son of Hermes and Aphrodite. His siblings were Eros, Harmonia, Phobos, Deimos, Pan, Priapus, and Tyche. He was forever joined with Salmacis by the gods.

Appearance

In artistic representations, Hermaphroditus is shown as both male and female with large wings on his back. He has female thighs and legs, breasts, long hair, and male genitalia.

Symbology

Hermaphroditus has long served as a symbol of androgyny, beginning in Greek and Roman times. But the symbol he is most associated with is marriage. Hermaphroditus himself is a physical representation of marriage as he is the coming together of a man and woman. He might have been associated with weddings without this union though as both his parents were known for their protecting and blessing of brides.

Hermaphroditus

Odysseus

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: oh-DIH-see-us


• Origin: Greek


• Role: Hero


• Symbol: Bow


• Parents: Laertes and Anticlea


• Wife: Penelope


• Other Names: Ulysses, Ulixes, Olysseus, Oulixeus, Oulixes

Who Is Odysseus?

In Greek mythology, Odysseus was a well-known hero. The son of Laertes and Anticlea, he went on to lead the Greeks in the Trojan War. His long journey home was full of challenges and excitement as well.

Purpose

Odysseus was a Greek hero. He was king of an island called Ithaca and played a major role in the Trojan War.

Origins

The story of Odysseus is found in Homer’s epic, the Odyssey. He is also mentioned throughout another of Homer’s epics, the Iliad. He was a pillar in Greek mythology and known for his heroic acts.

Legends and Stories

The story of Odyssey has been well preserved. Here are some of the main excerpts.

Odysseus Gets Married

Odysseus was in love with Helen and wanted to make her his wife. But he wasn’t the only one who wanted to marry her. Odysseus spoke to her step-father, Tyndareus, the king of Sparta. He told the king that he would help decide who would marry Helen if he could marry Penelope, the king’s niece. Tyndareus agreed. Odysseus had Helen’s suitors draw straws, but only if they promised to pledge their loyalty to Helen and her future husband, whomever it was going to be. Menelaus won the draw and married Helen while Odysseus took Penelope as his wife.

It wasn’t long after that Helen was abducted by Prince Paris of Troy. All the men who had drawn straws to win Helen were called back to help in the quest to rescue her. Odysseus did not want to partake because of a premonition he had been told, telling him that it would take him on a long journey, keeping him from his family. To avoid helping rescue Helen, he decided to feign madness. He plowed his fields with salt. A man by the name of Palamedes did not believe Odysseus to be crazy and to prove his hypothesis, he placed Odysseus’ son in front of the plow. Odysseus swerved to miss the baby, proving that he was sane. He was forced to join the quest.

The Trojan War

The Greeks headed to Troy. Odysseus played an important role in the war. He served as an advisor and solved several predicaments. He prevented Agamemnon from retreating. He helped Achilles’ manage the death of Patroclus. But when it came to Palamedes, he might have played a role in his death because of the grudge he held against him. Some versions of Odysseus’ myth suggest that he exposed Palamedes as a traitor and the Greeks turned on him. Other versions say that Odysseus tricked Palamedes into going into a well, where he was quickly buried at the bottom.

But the most famous contribution Odysseus made to the Trojan War was the Trojan Horse. The Greeks tricked the Trojans into thinking they were retreating. They presented them with a large wooden horse as a gift. The Trojans accepted and celebrated their victory. Once the Trojans had fallen asleep, most of them drunk from the celebration, the wooden horse opened. It was full of Greek warriors. They attacked the Trojans and won the war.

Odysseus’ Journey

After the war, Odysseus was eager to return home. But his journey would take him ten years and through many obstacles. In one story, storms caused Odysseus’ ships to go off course, landing on the island of the Cyclops. The Cyclops began eating the crew members. But Odysseus was smart and found a way to defeat the Cyclops by blinding him.

The ships eventually reached the island of Aeolus, the god of the winds. Aelos gave Odysseus all of the winds except for the west wind in a bag. This allowed the west wind to blow exclusively, steering the ships to Ithaca. But just as they were approaching the shore, a few crew members opened the bag, mistaking it for a bag of treasure. The winds were released and blew the ships back to their starting point. Aeolus refused to help them again.

These obstacles would continue until finally, Odysseus made it home. It was late and Athena disguised him as a beggar so he could find out what happened while he was gone. Penelope had told all of Ithaca that she would marry anyone able to string her husband’s bow. She knew that Odysseus was the only one able to do this. Suitors tried but they were unsuccessful. Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, strung the bow. He revealed himself to Penelope, who did not believe it was her husband who had finally returned. She gave him one more test and asked him to move their bed to another room of their home. But this was a trick as well. Odysseus answered correctly, telling her that he couldn’t move the bed because one leg was a living olive tree.

Family

Odysseus’ parents were Laertes and Anticlea. He led the Kephallenians on the island of Ithaca, where he was king. His wife was Penelope and they had one son named Telemachos.

Appearance

In artistic representations, Odysseus is shown wearing armor. As described by Homer, the armor is bronze with leather tabs hanging down. He wears tin on his legs and a crested helmet. He is shown as very handsome and muscular.

Symbology

The most well-known symbol of Odysseus is his bow. He was the only one capable of using it, symbolizing his place as king. His dog, Argos, is also a symbol. The dog’s loyalty is evident. We are made to understand that Argos could not die until Odysseus returned. His family was also loyal to him in his absence, even though many tried to sway them.

Odysseus

Allah

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: AH-lah


• Origin: Middle Eastern


• Role: Creator-God


• Symbol: Crescent Moon


• Children: Allat, Manat, Al-Uzza

Who Is Allah?

Allah is the name given to the creator-God followed by the Arabian nation. There is much speculation over his origins and many historical researchers speculate that Allah is actually a recreation of a previous moon god. This article will focus on both the moon god and the God Allah as worshipped today.

Purpose

According to the Quran, Allah created the universe and its inhabitants for one sole purpose. Humans only exist to worship Allah. Allah also tests humans by how they live their lives on Earth. According to Allah, there is more to human’s existence than just their time on Earth.

Origins

As previously mentioned, it is speculated but also disputed by many that Allah is based on an ancient moon god. Pagan Arab nations worshipped a different god for each day of the year. But the moon god was considered to be the most important. He was called by various names but one of the most common was Allah.

Pagan Arabs worshipped the moon god in a way that mimics today’s Muslim worshipping rituals. For example, the moon god called for followers to worship him by praying towards Mecca several times each day, by making pilgrimages to Mecca, kissing the Black Stone, and sacrificing animals. Worshippers also fasted during months that began and ended with the crescent moon.

All of these practices are still followed today, suggesting that today’s Allah is simply a reinvented version of the ancient pagan moon god.

Legends and Stories

You won’t find traditional stories and legends surrounding Allah. However, historical documentations, along with the Quran, do provide insight into why so many believe Allah to be the moon god. Here are a few supporting segments to consider when deciding for yourself.

The Case of the Origin of Allah

We know that Allah is the name for the creator-God of Islam but could the name also refer to the pagan moon god, meaning that both are the same god? The argument has gone on for decades, with the opposing sides feeling adamant about their stances. But there is no denying the similarities between the two.

When used in both situations, Allah is the personal name used for both the ancient moon god and the God of the Quran. When determining if there is a relationship, most refer to the worship rituals of both, which are incredibly similar.

The pagan Arabians worshipped their moon god by praying towards Mecca, which houses a meteorite, multiple times each day. They would also visit Mecca once each year and would walk around the meteorite multiple times during each visit. The exact same practices are followed today.

Another strong piece of evidence surrounds the month of Ramadan, which is a holy Muslim time that begins when a new crescent moon appears. Is it a coincidence that such a ceremony would revolve around the moon, the symbol of the moon god?

You’ll also find the crescent moon symbol in nearly every part of the Islamic religion, which is also known as the symbol of the Allah worshipped today.

But for those who argue against these revelations, the strongest contradictory element is that the word Allah is also used in the bible to refer to God. The term Allah has been used in many religions to refer to gods. We might never know how much, or if at all, the Allah of Islam is based on the pagan moon god but we can learn more by understanding the story of Mohammad, the main prophet of Islam.

Mohammed Solidifies Concept of One God

Mohammad was born in 570 AD. By 610 AD, he had become a prophet. Before Islam, the people worshipped their own high god, based on their tribe. The term Allah was used for this high god but when Mohammad founded Islam, he changed how people worshipped forever.

He traveled to Medina, where a moon god called Hubal was worshipped. Hubal was also known as Allah, and Mohammad decided that he would no longer be called Hubal. When Mohammad captured Mecca, he declared that Allah was not just a high god, but the only true God. He said that the angel Gabriel had told him through a vision that Allah was the supreme God and all others should no longer be worshipped, including the daughters of Allah. While many of the same worship traditions remained, there was only to be one God.

Many speculate that by Mohammed choosing such a popular god to promote, Islam was easily accepted. Should he have spoken of a lesser known or even an unknown god, Islam would certainly not have grown the way it has over the centuries.

Family

Allah the moon god was married to the sun goddess. They had three daughters, the goddesses Allat, Al-Uzza, and Manat. The daughters were viewed as high gods, along with their mother, and were worshipped at the Kabah. They were believed to serve as messengers between the people and the moon god.

Appearance

It is impossible to know what Allah looks like. In fact, it is not recommended to try and depict him in artistic representations. It is accepted that his form is not human and that all languages are incapable of describing him.

Symbology

The main symbol of Allah, both today’s and the moon god, is the crescent moon. It is the main symbol of Islam and can be found on flags and on top of mosques. You’ll also notice it on hats, rugs, and jewelry. This is one of the strongest pieces of evidence suggesting that the modern Allah is strongly linked to the ancient moon god.

Allah

Demeter

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: dee-MEE-tur


• Origin: Greek


• Role: Goddess of Agriculture, Fertility and Harvest


• Symbol: Cornucopia


• Parents: Cronus and Rhea


• Child: Persephone


• Other Names: Ceres, Sito, Thesmophoros

Who Is Demeter?

In Greek mythology, Demeter was the goddess of the harvest. She was responsible for ensuring crop growth. It is said that the first loaf of bread made every harvest year was offered to her as a sacrifice. She was also known as the goddess of the earth and oversaw all of agriculture and fertility.

Culture

Demeter founded a mysterious festival known as the Eleusinian Mysteries. The large festivals took place every five years for centuries. However, there is little historical data to explain their significance. Those who attended were sworn to secrecy but it is believed that they were symbolic, celebrating the return of the human soul after death through reincarnation, similar to how grain returns to the fields after the death of winter.

Origins

There are few mentions of Demeter by Homer but historians believe that the roots of her myths are more ancient than many other Olympian gods.

Legends and Stories

Stories about Demeter focus on her goddess responsibilities, including crops and the harvests. Read two of her more popular myths, both which show her strong emotional ties to what she considered most sacred.

Demeter and Persephone

Demeter had one daughter named Persephone. As she was an only child, Demeter gave her all of her attention and devotion to Persephone. Persephone brought so much happiness to Demeter’s life that the effects spread to the crops, which grew tall and bountiful. Flowers covered every meadow and trees grew tall into the sky. Demeter watched Persephone grow into a beautiful young goddess. Persephone began to attract the attention of male suitors but none were up to Demeter’s standards, especially Hades, the god of the underworld.

Hades approached Zeus, Persephone’s father, and asked for the girl’s hand in marriage. Zeus told the god that Demeter would never agree to the marriage and he was right. But Hades wasn’t one to accept defeat. He hatched a plan to make Persephone his wife and soon put it into action.

One day, as Persephone picked flowers in a field with her friends, Hades rode his chariot up to Earth. He emerged from a hole in the ground that formed next to Persephone and quickly grabbed her. He immediately headed back to the underworld with his soon to be wife. No one even noticed the goddess was gone.

It became obvious soon enough though that Persephone was missing. Demeter searched everywhere for her daughter and her despair quickly had an effect on the crops. Zeus felt the need to step in before the Earth became barren. He told Demeter that Hades had taken Persephone but that he had a plan to win the girl back. He told Hades that they needed to have a meeting and the god agreed.

But Hades was wise and knew that they were going to try and take his new bride. So, he fed her pomegranate seeds, the food of the underworld. Anyone who consumed any part of the fruit became bound to the underworld forever. Persephone didn’t know this so she didn’t question her sudden infatuation with her new husband and home.

During the meeting, Persephone was asked where she wanted to live. When she said she wanted to remain in the underworld, Demeter was devastated. Zeus knew that Hades had somehow cheated so he came up with a compromise.

Persephone was to live with her mother or half the year. During the other half, she would remain in the underworld with her husband. This is the explanation or the changing seasons. When Persephone is with Demeter, crops grow and harvests are bountiful. But when she is with Hades, Demeter falls into a depressed state and crops die.

Demeter and Erysichthon

In the city of Thessaly, located in central Greece, a man named Erysichthon was known for his selfish and arrogant manner. In the center of his town, there was a tall oak tree that grew in the center of a grove dedicated to Demeter. The people of the town would come to the grove, decorate the tree, and pay their respects to the goddess of the harvest.

But Erysichthon ordered his men to cut down the tree, as he wanted to turn it into a large banquet table. But they refused so he acted on his own. With the first chop of his axe, Demeter appeared, but disguised as a priest. She asked the man to stop but he wouldn’t. Demeter then revealed her true form to Erysichthon, who still refused to stop cutting down the tree.

Demeter then punished Erysichthon, cursing him with an appetite that could never be satisfied. He first ate everything in his home but because he was still hungry, he headed out into the town and again ate everything in sight, even food that was reserved for the gods. He became frantic with hunger and even sold his own daughter for food. But when he could no longer find anything to eat, he began to eat his own flesh, and continued eating until he died.

Family

Demeter was the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She had four siblings, Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, and Hestia. With Zeus, she had one daughter named Persephone.

Appearance

In artistic representations, Demeter is shown as a middle-aged woman, sometimes shown in a field or holding wheat or barley. Other times, she is shown on a throne holding either a cornucopia of the four-headed Eleusinian torch.

Symbology

Demeter’s symbols include items that represent her generosity. Many of our symbols associated with harvests today can be linked to the Greek goddess, including the cornucopia and sheaves of wheat. Loaves of bread are also a symbol of her generosity while the torch is symbolic of the festivals once held in her honor.

Demeter

Anubis

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: ah-NEW-bis


• Origin: Egyptian


• Role: God of embalming


• Symbol: Jackal


• Parents: Nephthys and Osiris


• Child: Kebechet


• Other Names: Yinepu, Anpu

Who Is Anubis?

In Egyptian mythology, Anubis was the original god of the dead. But as Anubis was worshipped by more followers, Osiris took over his role while Anubis had a more direct role guiding the souls of the deceased.

Purpose

Known as the jackal-god of mummification, Anubis was responsible for making sure the journey to the underworld went smoothly for man. He was considered the inventor of embalming and had several important functions.

First, he overlooked the embalming of deceased bodies. Embalming isn’t simple work and Anubis ensured it was done correctly. He also received each mummy and would quickly perform both the Opening of the Mouth ceremony and ritual of conducting the soul in the Field of Celestial Offerings. He also oversaw the Scales of Truth, which protected the deceased from eternal death and deception.

Many believed that Anubis would both physically and spiritually guard their tombs. The Egyptians believed that the bodies of deceased needed to be preserved for the afterlife and Anubis played a large role in their beliefs.

Origins

Anubis came to be known during the third millennium BC as the god of the dead. He ruled the underworld and decided the fate of the deceased. As time went on, Anubis’ daily responsibilities changed.

Osiris took over ruling the underworld and managing those entering the afterlife while Anubis became a more specialized god. He became a psychopomp and guided the souls of the newly deceased to the underworld. He presided over the area between the living world and the underworld, making sure that spirits were never left behind.

Legends and Stories

As one of the most famous Egyptian gods, there are many stories surrounding Anubis. Here are a couple, one about his birth and the other about his role in Egyptian mythology.

The Birth of Anubis

Anubis’ mother was the goddess Nephthys. She tricked her brother Osiris into fathering the child. Her husband, Set, was furious about the affair and vowed to kill the child as soon as he was born. Nephthys did what she had to do to protect Anubis and hid him in marshes near the Nile River. Isis, Osiris’ wife, found the baby and raised him as her own. Once Anubis was grown, he repaid Isis by protecting her.

Osiris took Anubis with him on many adventures. When Set murdered Osiris as revenge for having relations with his wife, he separated Osiris’ body into several pieces and scattered them throughout the land. Anubis helped Isis find the body pieces and embalmed the body so that it wouldn’t decay. This was the first act of embalmment. He also performed the first Egyptian burial rites over Osiris.

Other myths suggest that Set was Anubis’ father. The myths say that Nephthys disguised herself as Isis. This version is sometimes accepted because of Set’s dark side, which would go along with Anubis’ responsibilities.

Yet another version claims that Anubis was the son of Ra and Nephthys. This was the earliest explanation but it is now mostly accepted that Nephthys and Osiris were Anubis’ biological parents.

The Roles of Anubis

Anubis had several rolls as the god of death. He was the Guardian of the Scales, which gave him the power to decide the fate of souls. He would weigh the heart of the deceased against the weight of a feather. The feather symbolized truth. If the scale tipped in favor of the heart, the person would be consumed by a female demon named Ammit. But if the scale tipped in favor of the feather, Anubis would lead the deceased to Osiris so that they could enter heaven.

Anubis also oversaw embalming and mummification. His daughter, Kebechet, would often assist him during the mummification process. Ancient Egyptians would cover the bodies of their dead with herbs ad plants because they believed Anubis would sniff the bodies before mummifying them. Anubis also performed the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, which would allow the deceased to be able to talk and eat in the afterlife.

Another role of Anubis can still be seen today. He was responsible for protecting the dead. Many prayers to the god have been found carved into tombs. This would eventually fall under Osiris’ responsibilities but many believed that Anubis still protected the dead after the transition of power.

Family

Anubis was the son of Osiris and Nephthys. His consort was Anput and together they had Kebechet and according to some myths, Ammut.

Appearance

In artistic representations, Anubis is portrayed as half jackal and half man. He is usually holding the divine scepter. Sometimes he is shown as a black jackal or other times as a dog next to Isis. His symbol is usually included in his pictures, a black and white ox-hide covered in blood hanging from a pole. Historians do not know the meaning behind the symbol.

Symbology

There are many symbols associated with Anubis, more than most gods. First, as previously mentioned, the ox-hide hanging from the pole is his main symbol though no one knows what it means. The other main symbol he is associated with is the jackal. Jackals are known to stay near tombs and graves, which is one of the reasons the Egyptians began to make tombs.

Anubis is also associated with embalming equipment as he is credited with inventing the technique.

Anubis

Loki

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Fast Facts:

• Origin: Norse


• Role: God


• Symbol: Snake


• Parents: Farbauti and Laufey


• Wife: Sigu


• Other Names: Loke, Loder, Lokkju, Lopter

Who Is Loki?

In Norse mythology, Loki was known as the sneaky and trickster god. He caused endless trouble for both mortals and gods but there were times when he used his trickery for good. He lived in Asgard and was often found with Thor or Odin. He enjoyed mischief and can be found in many myths living up to his reputation.

Purpose

Loki didn’t have a traditional role as many other gods. Instead, he served as more of a sidekick, using his mischievous nature to both deter and assist other gods.

Origins

Something that makes Loki different from other gods is that historians have been able to explain the meaning of his name. When it comes to Norse mythology, many of the gods have an obvious source of origin. The accepted suggestion comes from the Viking Age. The noun “loki” means “knot” or “tangle” which could symbolize Loki’s ability to snag other’s plans. It could also be linked to Loki’s ability to make nets.

Legends and Stories

Loki can be found throughout many Norse myths, either helping the gods in their quests or causing them headaches along the way. The following myth focuses on a punishment Loki received for his mischief.

The Myth of Loki

The Norse gods spent most of their time in heaven, enjoying the splendor that surrounded them. They did on occasion look down and check in on the men and giants that roamed the earth. Once, Loki opened up a crack to heaven, which allowed the giants to reach up and take the apples of eternal life that grew in heaven’s orchard. With the crack open, Time was able to enter heaven and leave all the gods with wrinkles and gray hair. But Loki apologized and the gods believed he would never do something so reckless again.

There was a god named Baldr and he was the most beautiful of the gods. He was known for his purity and embodied all things good. Everyone loved Baldr and no one could imagine any harm coming to him. But Baldr began to have dreams that he would suffer a terrible and violent death.

Baldr’s mother, Frigg, was upset by the premonitions her son was having so she set out to demand a promise from all living things. She asked every creature and plant to never hurt her son. The move was impressive and admired by the other gods. With all living things in unison, Frigg knew no one would harm her son.

The gods turned this into a game. They would throw rocks and weapons at Baldr, yet all the items would either disintegrate or drop before Baldr’s feet. He was never harmed. While the other gods were amused by this, Loki found it all very irritating. He made sure that no one knew how he felt but he couldn’t stand so much perfection.

So Loki, being a shapeshifter, changed himself into an old woman so that he could talk with Frigg without her knowing she was talking to Loki. He commented on how amazing Baldr was and how he seemed to be invincible. It was then that Frigg admitted she skipped one plant when asking for her son’s protection. The plant was mistletoe and because it was so small and appeared to be harmless, Frigg had skipped it.

This was all Loki needed to know. He headed to earth and grabbed some mistletoe. He came across Hod, a blind god, and asked him why he had never thrown anything at Baldr like the other gods did for fun. Hod replied that because he was blind and had no weapon, he never saw much of a reason to join in. Loki handed over the mistletoe and told Hod that he would guide his hand. Hod, thinking nothing of the so-called weapon, agreed.

The mistletoe struck Baldr in the neck and instantly killed him. Loki immediately began to laugh, giving away his guilt, so he began to run. But the gods knew what had happened and caught him. They came up with a fitting punishment. They removed the intestines of one of Loki’s sons and used it to tie up the god on a rock in a chamber. There was a cobra that would drip burning venom on Loki’s face for the rest of all eternity.

Loki’s wife, Sigu, demanded that she be allowed to stay with her husband. The gods relentingly agreed. Sigu would stand with a bowl to catch the venom but she would sometimes have to leave to dump it out. During this time, Loki would contort in pain as the venom dripped on his face. This is the Norse explanation for earthquakes.

Family

Loki’s father was a giant named Farbauti and his mother was Laufey, who was believed to be a goddess or a giantess. Loki and the giantess Angrboda had a relationship. Their children were Hel, the goddess of the underworld, Jormungand, the giant serpent who would slay Thor, and Fenir, a wolf.

Loki was married to Sigu, and together they had a son named Nari. As a shapeshifter, Loki also became the mother of Sleipnir, Odin’s horse.

Appearance

Loki was jester-like in appearance, with many artistic representations showing him dancing and sneering. His nose is often depicted as large. You’ll find several variations of Loki, as he was a shapeshifter and could alter his appearance as desired.

Symbology

The main symbol associated with Lok is a snake, as it represents his cunning and mischievous behavior.

Loki

Hephaestus

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: HA-fes-tus


• Origin: Greek


• Role: God of fire and blacksmith


• Symbols: Hammer, Anvil, Tongs


• Wife: Aphrodite


• Children: Euklela, Euthenia, Eupheme, Philophrosyne


• Other Name: Vulcan

Who Is Hephaestus?

In Greek mythology, Hephaestus was the blacksmith god. He is often found in the background of myths. Though he is often portrayed as a supporting god, he was responsible for several important elements, such as fire and volcanoes.

He lived on Mouth Olympus. He would spend his days in his studio where he would make different items using his blacksmith tools. He always had a fire burning, which would play a part in how mankind was able to use it. He made gifts for humans and the gods but he also built himself lavish items. For example, his palace was made of gold and could not be duplicated by even the most talented artisans. The interior sparkled with sapphires and diamonds. Though many felt sorry for the god because of his poor appearance and lame foot, he led a lavish life and was content.

Purpose

Hephaestus was often called upon to help other gods with their tasks. For example, he helped Zeus in the War with the Giants by making weapons and armor. He also made Pandora, the first mortal woman. When an item needed to be constructed, Hephaestus was always the first to be approached by gods and humans.

Origins

Zeus and Hera were Hephaestus’ parents. There is some debate regarding how he was conceived though. Some myths say that Hera gave birth to him before she was Zeus’ wife while others say that she conceived Hephaestus alone. According to one myth, he was born on Lemnos Island, where he was left in the care of a blacksmith named Kidalionas. Hephaestus learned the blacksmith trade from his caretaker.

Legends and Stories

As previously mentioned, Hephaestus is normally found in a supporting role in Greek myths. But there are some that focus more on his life and purpose. Here are some of the myths surrounding the blacksmith god.

Hephaestus’ Leg

It is unknown how Hephaestus’ leg was injured but it is assumed it was in his early years of life. In one variation, Hera rejected him at birth. Just after giving birth to her son on Mount Olympus, she became appalled at her baby’s appearance and lame leg. She became angry and couldn’t understand how she could have given birth to such an ugly child. She worried that the other gods would laugh at her and her son. So she took the baby and threw him over the mountain. The baby dropped into the ocean, where Thetis and Eurynome found him. They cared for him for nine years, where he learned to make jewelry with pearls and coral.

In another variation, Hephaestus was born with two functional legs. But one day, his parents found themselves in the middle of a terrible fight. Hera was upset that Zeus had engaged in an affair with a mortal named Alcmene. Together, they had conceived a son named Hercules.

Because of his father’s unfaithfulness, Hephaestus sided with his mother. This only made Zeus angrier. In a fit of rage, he picked up the child and threw him down Mount Olympus. He flew in the air for an entire day before he smashed into Lemnos Island. He landed on several large rocks and his foot was severely injured, leaving him crippled. He remained on the island, where he learned to become a blacksmith.

Hephaestus and Aphrodite

How did Hephaestus, cursed with a lame foot and unattractive features, win the heart of the most beautiful goddess? He deceived his father to win Aphrodite’s hand. On a day of celebration for Hera, Hephaestus gifted her with a golden throne. He had built the throne himself and Hera was thrilled with the gift. She sat down and admired her new throne. But when she tried to get up, she realized that Hephaestus had placed her in invisible shackles, holding her captive in her seat.

Hephaestus was seeking revenge against his parents for abandoning him as a child. Hera immediately felt guilty, began to cry, and begged her son for forgiveness. The gods were angry with Hephaestus and demanded that he let his mother go. But he refused. Dionysus, a close friend of Hephaestus, stepped in. He asked Hephaestus to have dinner with him and discuss the situation. During dinner, Dionysus got his friend drunk and convinced him to release his mother. But just before he was about to release Hera, Zeus appeared and expressed his disappointment with his son. Hephaestus took advantage of the situation, since his father didn’t know he was going to release Hera anyway. He told his father that he would only release the shackles if he was promised Aphrodite, the goddess of beauty, as his wife. The gods were appalled but Zeus felt he didn’t have a choice. Hephaestus released Hera and then took his new bride.

Family

Hephaestus was married to Aphrodite. Even though they had a rocky relationship due to Aphrodite’s many love affairs, they still had several children who had important roles. Euklela was the goddess of good repute and glory. Euthenia was the goddess of prosperity and plenty. Eupheme was the goddess of being well spoken. Philophrosyne was the goddess of friendliness.

Appearance

Hephaestus was not known for being very attractive. He is often portrayed as an older man with broad shoulders and an intimidating physique. He usually has a white beard. He is typically wearing a short tunic, which was the clothing of choices for craftsmen.

Symbology

Because he was the god of blacksmiths, Hephaestus’ symbols are masculine in nature. He is associated with acts of nature, like fire and volcanoes. Other symbols include a hammer, an anvil, and tongs.

Hephaestus

Nephilim

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Fast Facts:

• Pronunciation: NEF-il-em


• Origin: Biblical


• Role: Giants


• Symbols: Armor, Weapons


• Parents: Sons of God, Mortal Women


• Other Names: Emim, Rephaim, Anakim, Gibborim

Who Is Nephilim?

Nephilim were supernatural beings mentioned several times in historical documents, though there is no verified proof of their existence. There is some debate over the precise description of Nephilim but most historians agree that they were the product of fallen angels and mortal women.

Descriptions of Nephilim lead us to believe that they were giants who also possessed super human strength. There are references to giants in the book of Genesis that says they were present during the time of Noah and perhaps after that as well. This article will explore the different explanations and variations of the Nephilim, as well as their significance in different chapters of mythology.

Purpose

The Nephilim had different purposes, depending on the source. For example, they were heroes in Greek and Roman mythology. In some documents, it is said that the Nephilim gave birth to the Elouid. Together, the Elouid and the Nephilim would go on to build some of the largest objects in the world, including the Pyramids, along with many ancient temples. But according to the Book of Enoch, the Nephilim were bloodthirsty cannibals who taught mortals how to administer abortions.

Some sources claim that the Nephilim use their talents to destroy evil supernatural creatures. They might have also worked towards keeping the peace between other creatures, such as Vampires, Fairies, Demons and Deities.

Origins

The origins of the Nephilim can be found in Genesis 6: 1-4.

When people began to multiply on the face of the ground, and daughters were born to them, the sons of God saw that they were fair; and they took wives for themselves of all that they chose.

The Nephilim were on the earth in those days – and also afterward – when the sons of God went in to the daughters of man, who bore children to them. These were the heroes that were of old, warriors of renown.

This passage suggests that the fallen angels, or the sons of God, consorted with the daughters of the Earth. The Nephilim are mentioned again in the book of Genesis but there is much debate surrounding their origins and purposes.

Legends and Stories

It is hard to find stories directly surrounding the Nephilim. Most examples are assumed, meaning that documentation of the race is not very detailed. Here are some stories believed to be about members of the Nephilim race.

David and Goliath

If you’ve heard of the story of David and Goliath, you know that Goliath was referred to as a giant. Many believe that he was a descendent of the Nephilim. But his size was no match for David’s courage and determination.

The Israelites and the Philistines were preparing for battle. David’s brothers were in the army but David was too small and young. He tended to the sheep instead. One day, his father asked him to deliver food to his brothers. He set out to the battle field, only to find that everyone was cowering in fear because of Goliath.

The giant’s words angered David and he told everyone he would fight Goliath with God by his side. The King and the army were concerned about the battle but David was relentless in his desires. The day came for the battle. David gathered five smooth stones and placed one in his sling and the rest in his pocket. Goliath taunted the boy and ran towards him. David shot the first stone at the giant. It hit him right between the eyes, knocking the giant to the ground. Before he could react, David cut off Goliath’s head with a giant sword. David’s battle victory led to the Israelites overall victory.

Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh was the main character of an ancient poem written between 2700 BC and 600 BC in Mesopotamia. He was described as half god and half human, leading most to classify him as a Nephilim. He was king of Uruk but he did not lead his people with honor. Instead, he wreaked havoc on the city and the people begged the gods to help.

The gods created Endiku, part beast and part human. Endiku lived in the forest but he was told of a disturbing ritual by someone passing through. When couples were wed, Gilgamesh had the right to spend the evening with the new bride, before her husband was able to. This bothered Endiku and he headed to Uruk to protect a woman who was getting married. Gilgamesh and Endiku fought. Gilgamesh won but the two ended up becoming friends. They had many adventures together but ended up offending the gods. It was decided that one must die and Enkidu fell ill and eventually passed, leaving Gilgamesh to continue his less than noble rulings.

Appearance

The Nephilim are half-human and half-angel. They are described as appearing to be human with angelic energies. Most descriptions of the Nephilim say that they are giants, which makes sense as the word “Nephilim” translates to “giants”.

Several ancient cultures, including the Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans, all made note of a giant race. These individuals were described as being smart, strong, and very large. Some documents suggest that they fell in between 8 and 12 feet tall while others describe giants as tall as 36 feet.

Symbology

The Nephilim are surrounded in mystery, making it difficult to determine any symbology. The Nephilim are sometimes portrayed as great helpers and supernatural beings while other times they are described as being vicious villains. But some symbols that have linked to the Nephilim are oversized suits of armor, the Pyramids, and weapons.

Nephilim